The Bergslagen ore province in south central Sweden is one of the most metallogenetically diverse of the classic mining regions in the Fennoscandian shield. Although most prolific with regards to iron and base metal production, Bergslagen was also the first place where hard-rock mining for extraction of rare earth elements (REE) took place, and exploration for them is ongoing. Major deposit types hosting REE minerali-sation are apatite-iron oxide (Kiruna-type) ores, Bastnas type magnetite-skarn mineralisations and rare metal-enriched granitic pegmatites. These deposits represent a variety of geological processes that led to the formation of a diverse suite of REE minerals over a total time span of some 100 M.y., from early orogenic and syn-volcanic intrusive related as well as hydrothermal processes, to late-orogenic intrusive-related ones.

Saucer-shaped intrusions of tens of meters to tens of kilometres across have been observed both from surface geological mapping and geophysical observations. However, there is only one location where they have been reported to extend c. 100 km laterally, and emplaced both in a sedimentary basin and the crystalline basement down to 12 km depth. The legacy BABEL offshore seismic data, acquired over the central Fennoscandian Shield in 1989, have been recovered and reprocessed with the main goal of focusing on this series of globally unique crustal-scale saucer-shaped intrusions present onshore and offshore below the Bothnian Sea. The intrusions (c. 1.25 Ga), emplaced in an extensional setting, are observed within both sedimentary rocks (<1.5 Ga) and in the crystalline basement (>1.5 Ga). They have oval shapes with diameters ranging 30-100 km. The reprocessed seismic data provide evidence of up-doming of the lower crust (representing the melt reservoir) below the intrusions that, in turn, are observed at different depths in addition to a steep seismically transparent zone interpreted to be a discordant feeder dyke system. Relative age constraints and correlation with onshore saucer-shaped intrusions of different size suggest that they are internally connected and fed by each other from deeper to shallower levels. We argue for a nested emplacement mechanism and against a controlling role by the overlying sedimentary basin as the saucer-shaped intrusions are emplaced in both the sedimentary rocks as well as in the underlying crystalline basement. The interplay between magma pressure and overburden pressure, as well as the, at the time, ambient stress regime, are responsible for their extensive extent and rather constant thicknesses (c. 100-300 m). Saucer-shaped intrusions may therefore be present elsewhere in the crystalline basement to the same extent as observed in this study some of which are a significant source of raw materials.

Kiruna-type apatite-iron-oxide ores are key iron sources for modern industry, yet their origin remains controversial. Diverse ore-forming processes have been discussed, comprising lowtemperature hydrothermal processes versus a high-temperature origin from magma or magmatic fluids. We present an extensive set of new and combined iron and oxygen isotope data from magnetite of Kiruna-type ores from Sweden, Chile and Iran, and compare them with new global reference data from layered intrusions, active volcanic provinces, and established low-temperature and hydrothermal iron ores. We show that approximately 80% of the magnetite from the investigated Kiruna-type ores exhibit d56Fe and d18O ratios that overlap with the volcanic and plutonic reference materials (> 800 degrees C), whereas similar to 20%, mainly vein-hosted and disseminated magnetite, match the low-temperature reference samples (<= 400 degrees C). Thus, Kiruna-type ores are dominantly magmatic in origin, but may contain latestage hydrothermal magnetite populations that can locally overprint primary hightemperature magmatic signatures.

The presently increasing demand for rare earth elements (REE), particularly in high-tech and "green energy" applications, has led to global interest in the distribution, origins and formation conditions of REE deposits. The World's first hard-rock REE sources, the polymetallic deposits of Bastnasfaltet in Bergslagen, central Sweden, were also the place of the original discovery of several REE and many of their host minerals. Similar deposits with high concentrations of REE occur along a >100 km corridor in the region and they share a number of geological and mineralogical features; all comprising Palaeoproterozoic, skarn-hosted magnetite-REE mineralisation of ambiguous origin. Here we report oxygen isotope data for magnetite and quartz, and oxygen and carbon isotope data for carbonates from ten of these classic deposits, to model and assess their mode of origin. Combined with existing geological observations, the isotope results support an origin in a c. 1.9 Ga shallow-marine back-arc, sub-seafloor setting, where felsic magmatic-sourced, high-temperature fluids reacted with pre-existing limestone interlayers, leading to localised skarn formation and magnetite-REE-mineral precipitation. These findings help us to better understand the geological processes that have produced economic REE mineralisation and may assist future exploration for these critical commodities.

Rock magnetic measurements were carried out on drill core material and hand specimens from the Blötberget apatite-iron oxide deposit in the Bergslagen ore province, south-central Sweden, to characterise their magnetic properties. Measurements included several kinds of magnetic susceptibility and hysteresis parameters. Petrographic and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to independently identify and quantify the amount and type of magnetite and hematite. Two hematite-rich samples were studied with laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to quantify the trace element chemistry in hematite and investigate the potential influence of trace elements on magnetic properties. Three aspects of this study are noteworthy. 1) Hematite-rich samples display strong anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility, which is likely to affect the appearance and modelling of magnetic anomalies. 2) The magnitude-drop in susceptibility across Curie and Néel temperature transitions show significant correlation with the respective weight percent (wt%) of magnetite and hematite. Temperature dependent magnetic susceptibility measurements can therefore be used to infer the amounts of both magnetite and hematite. 3) observations of a strongly depressed Morin transition at ca -60 to -70 C (200 to 210 K) are made during low-temperature susceptibility measurements. This anomalous Morin transition is most likely related to trace amounts of V and Ti that substitute for Fe in the hematite. When taken together, these magnetic observations improve the understanding of the magnetic anomaly signature of the Blötberget apatite-iron oxide deposits and may potentially be utilised in a broader context when assessing similar (Paleoproterozoic) apatite-iron oxide systems.

The presence of the critical and sought-after (semi-)metals gallium (Ga) and germanium (Ge) has previously been reported from mineralisations in the Bergslagen ore province, south central Sweden. Some of these reports were however recently shown to be questionable or erroneous. Here we summarise early analytical work on these metals in mineral deposits of the Bergslagen province, as well as briefly report new analytical data for Ga and Ge from recent, in part on-going work on different mineralisation types. The new data show that the sampled sulphide and iron oxide mineralisations in the Bergslagen province are overall not particularly enriched in Ga, and even less so with regards to Ge. One major exception is the significant Ga enrichment observed in skarn-hosted Fe-REE(-polymetallic) deposits of Bastnas type. Notably, these mineralisations also host increased contents of Ge. Based on this broader suite of sampled deposits, the suggested correlation between Ga and Al contents in previously studied material with relatively increased Ga grades, is in part contradicted, indicating that Ga is only in part sequestered through straightforward Al-substitution into aluminium silicate and oxide minerals. The mineralisations that do exhibit significantly increased Ge contents, in addition to the Bastnas-type deposits, are represented by both sulphide-dominated ones and Fe (-Mn) oxide-rich systems.

The Mavres Petres mine, operated by Hellas Gold, and the Piavitsa prospect are both located along the Stratoni fault in the Kassandra mining district, northern Greece. These Tertiary deposits are brecciated, carbonate replacement Pb-Zn-Ag-(Au) mineralisations and the Piavitsa deposit is also associated with Au-rich epithermal veins. Both mineralisations were variably overprinted by later fluids as well as ductile and brittle deformation affecting ore mineralogy and trace element distribution. Galena is the main Ag-carrier, contains significant concentrations of Sb and Bi and is locally associated with a suite of Sb-As-Bi phases. Sphalerite is either massive or occurs as a later cockade-textured type. Both varieties are variably enriched in Mn and can exhibit elevated concentrations of In and Ga. In Piavitsa, alabandite is present as small euhedral crystals or in veins in fractured sphalerite. Pyrite is ubiquitous and is either present as disseminations, massive to skeletal aggregates or as a matrix in breccias. It is often arsenic-bearing and even more so towards the later stages. Arsenopyrite appears to be a late phase and occurs interstitial to pyrite and as euhedral crystals. While both arsenopyrite and arsenian pyrite can be enriched in Au, As-minerals are not necessarily associated with Au.

The presently mined Lovisa deposit constitutes a c. 1.9 Ga, stratiform Zn-Pb-(Ag) sulphide mineralisation hosted by rhyolite-dominated meta volcanic rocks in the Bergslagen ore province, south central Sweden. The mineralised rock sequence at Lovisa has been subjected to polyphase ductile deformation, amphibolite facies regional metamorphism, and late-stage brittle deformation. The combined effects of these processes have produced a diversity of post-genetic ore textures within the sulphide horizons, including metablastic growth, piercements, ductile and brittle sulphide deformation, and durchbewegung and 'ball ore' textures. Here we report on the character and textural evolution of the Lovisa deposit in conjunction with regional metamorphism and deformation, utilising new data from ore- and electron microscopy combined with 3D tomography by means of novel XRT-XRF drill core scanning technique.

The Archean (~2.6 Ga) Siilinjärvi carbonatite complex in east-central Finland is crosscut by a few ultramafic lamprophyre dykes, together with a broad array of more evolved mafic dykes that range in composition from foidites to various types of alkali basalts. A possible genetic link between the primitive lamprophyres and the carbonatite complex has previously been hypothesised, but their exact relations have been unclear due to the regional metamorphic overprint (i.e., greenschist facies). Here we focus on the petrology and petrography of the mafic dykes, and integrate the data to present a coherent model that can explain the genesis of the Siilinjärvi carbonatite complex. Field-relations, in combination with petrography and geochemistry, indicate that there are at least three generations of mafic dykes present. The oldest dykes (Generation I) are strongly deformed, and inferred to have been emplaced shortly after the formation of the complex itself. These dykes can be divided into two groups (i.e., ultramafic lamprophyres and Group A), where Group A comprises foidites characterised by low SiO₂ (41.4–51.5 wt%) and high alkali (>10 wt% K₂O) content. We interpret the foiditic magmas to have evolved from primitive ultramafic lamprophyres by fractionating a clinopyroxene-olivine dominated mineral assemblage that was devoid of feldspar. This fractionation path forced alkali-enrichment in the magmas belonging to Group A, which pushed them into the miscibility gap, and resulted in liquid immiscibility that produced moderately alkaline conjugate carbonatite(s). Subsequent fractionation of the conjugate carbonatite by predominantly calcite and apatite produced the mineralogically homogeneous carbonatite cumulate that is exposed at Siilinjärvi. Younger, less deformed, mafic dykes (belonging to Generations II and III) exhibit trace element characteristics, broadly similar to basaltic dyke swarms in the region. The younger dykes are characterised by the presence of large plagioclase crystals in thin sections. Crystallisation of a feldspar-bearing mineral assemblage resulted in only moderate enrichment of alkalis with increased fractionation, which caused the younger dykes to evolve along the more common basalt-to-trachyte series. Thus, the magmas belonging to Generations II and III at Siilinjärvi never fulfilled the conditions required to produce carbonatites by liquid immiscibility.

This ongoing study focuses on the reprocessing of the historical BABEL (Baltic and Bothnian Echoes from the Lithosphere, 1989) seismic lines in the Bay of Bothnia in preparation for the acquisition of a 400 km long onshore reflection and refraction profile in central part of Sweden. The main aim of the project is to increase the understanding of the tectonic evolution of the mineral-rich Bergslagen region both offshore and onshore. The seismic data have been recovered and currently being reprocessed using up-to-date processing methods and preliminary results show promising outcome from this work.