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A sliding mode control system for a 4-quadrant DCDC converter was designed and a low voltage prototype was constructed. The target application is a flywheel based all-electric driveline. Important qualities are current and voltage control, bidirectionality, and stability for a broad input voltage range, focusing on a smooth transition between operating quadrants. The control decisions were based entirely on the latest available measurements, implying that no memory needs reinitializing when changing quadrant. The boost control was based on a topology specific current source approximation. The control was found to be parameter invariant, regardless of high input/output dynamics variance.

This paper presents the design and optimization of a high-speed (30 000 r/min) kinetic energy storage system. The purpose of the device is to function as an energy buffer storing up to 867 Wh, primarily for utility vehicles in urban traffic. The rotor comprises a solid composite shell of carbon and glass fibers in an epoxy matrix, constructed in one curing. The shell is optimized using a combined analytical and numerical approach. The radial stress in the shell is kept compressive by integrating the electric machine, thereby avoiding delamination. Radial centering is achieved through eight active electromagnetic actuators. The actuator geometry is optimized using a direct coupling between SolidWorks, Comsol, and Matlab for maximum force over resistive loss for a given current density. The optimization results in a system with 300% higher current stiffness than the reference geometry with constant flux area, at the expense of 33% higher power loss. The actuators are driven by semipassive H bridges and controlled by an FPGA. Current control at 20 kHz with a noise of less than 5 mA (95% CI) is achieved, allowing position control at 4 kHz to be implemented.

Brushless dc coreless electric machines with double-rotor and single-stator configuration have very low losses, since the return path of the magnetic flux rotates with the permanent magnets. The eddy-current loss in the stator is additionally very small due to the lack of iron, making it ideal for kinetic energy storage. This paper presents a design for self-bearing rotor suspension, achieved by placing the stator windings skewed on a conical surface. A mathematical analysis of the force from a skewed winding confined to the surface of a cone was found. The parametric analytical expressions of the magnitude and direction of force and torque were verified by finite-element method simulations for one specific geometry. A dynamic model using proportional-integral-differential control was implemented in MATLAB/Simulink, and the currents needed for the self-bearing effect were found by solving an underdetermined system of linear equations. External forces, calculated from acceleration measurements from a bus in urban traffic, were added to simulate the dynamic environment of an electrical vehicle.

A review of flywheel energy storage technology was made, with a special focus on the progress in automotive applications. We found that there are at least 26 university research groups and 27 companies contributing to flywheel technology development. Flywheels are seen to excel in high-power applications, placing them closer in functionality to supercapacitors than to batteries. Examples of flywheels optimized for vehicular applications were found with a specific power of 5.5 kW/kg and a specific energy of 3.5 Wh/kg. Another flywheel system had 3.15 kW/kg and 6.4 Wh/kg, which can be compared to a state-of-the-art supercapacitor vehicular system with 1.7 kW/kg and 2.3 Wh/kg, respectively. Flywheel energy storage is reaching maturity, with 500 flywheel power buffer systems being deployed for London buses (resulting in fuel savings of over 20%), 400 flywheels in operation for grid frequency regulation and many hundreds more installed for uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications. The industry estimates the mass-production cost of a specific consumer-car flywheel system to be 2000 USD. For regular cars, this system has been shown to save 35% fuel in the U.S. Federal Test Procedure (FTP) drive cycle.

Two types of passive magnetic lift bearings were evaluated in terms of thrust force and eddy current losses. The first type of bearings were based on two sets of segmented Halbach arrays mounted in repulsive mode, and the second type was based on ring-magnets. The eddy-currents studied arose in the bearing due to manufacturing variations of magnetic remanence, and due to non-radial magnetization. Both a 3D time-dependent and a quasi-stationary Finite-Element Method (FEM) formulation were used, and the simulated results were compared with lift-force measurements from experiment. The losses were found (by FEM) to be in the order of 25 W at a rotational speed of 30000 rpm while lifting a 45 kg rotor with a stiffness of 359 N/mm.

A hollow cylinder flywheel rotor with a novel outer rotor switched reluctance machine (SRM) mounted on the interior rim is presented, with measurements, numerical analysis and analytical models. Practical experiences from the construction process are also discussed. The flywheel rotor does not have a shaft and spokes and is predicted to store 181 Wh/kg at ultimate tensile strength (UTS) according to simulations. The novel SRM is an axial flux machine, chosen due to its robustness and tolerance for high strain. The computed maximum tip speed of the motor at UTS is 1050 m/s . A small-scale proof-of-concept electric machine prototype has been constructed, and the machine inductance has been estimated from measurements of voltage and current and compared against results from analytical models and finite element analysis (FEA). The prototype measurements were used to simulate operation during maximal speed for a comparison towards other high-speed electric machines, in terms of tip speed and power. The mechanical design of the flywheel was performed with an analytical formulation assuming planar stress in concentric shells of orthotropic (unidirectionally circumferentially wound) carbon composites. The analytical approach was verified with 3D FEA in terms of stress and strain.

A complete passive magnetic bearing system, consisting in a Permanent Magnet radial bearing and a Superconductive Magnetic Bearing has been simulated and constructed. The forces in both types of magnetic bearings are not linear. The non-linear behavior has been implemented in a FEM model and compared with linear models. A spin down test has been conducted to the built system and the Eigen frequencies have been recorded. The Eigen frequencies calculated with and without the non-linear behavior implemented in the model are very similar.

An optimization strategy for a hollow flywheel energy storage is presented. Several press-fitted shells of anisotropic materials (such as carbon composites) are studied by an analytical model based on a plane stress assumption. The optimization target is stored energy. The optimizer constraints (which were evaluated at full and zero charge level, respectively) were based on strain-based models for fatigue life of composites, and stress-based fatigue life models for high-strength aluminum. A compiled library was built within the scope of this work, and used to run a robust global grid-search optimizing method. The analytical model was compared against a finite element method solution, and the (single-core) library was seen to be at least 5 orders of magnitude faster. 

An integrated flywheel prototype designed to store 868 W h at 30 000 rpm with a novel radial flux core-less electric machine was constructed. The rotor was suspended contactlessly on active radial magnetic bearings and passive axial magnetic bearings. This paper describes the system in detail. The rotor was found to be weakly damped (even at standstill) and the magnetic bearings were used to specifically compensate particular eigenfrequencies. The levitation system was then used to experimentally evaluate the vibrations of the rotor, and compared to FEM studies. Spin-down tests were conducted to evaluate levitation system performance.