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Face-to-face and digital social interaction, loneliness, sense of belonging and self-rated general health during the COVID-19 pandemic: ecological momentary assessment
Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, research centers etc., National Center for Disaster Psychiatry.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6206-6780
Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, research centers etc., National Center for Disaster Psychiatry.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-5523-8126
Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, research centers etc., National Center for Disaster Psychiatry. Norwegian centre for violence and traumatic stress studies, PB-181, NO-0409, Oslo, Norway.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-7062-1011
Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Medicine and Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, Psychiatry.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7237-4429
Show others and affiliations
(English)In: Article in journal (Other academic) Submitted
Abstract [en]

The COVID-19 pandemic entailed restrictions to social interactions, which may have affected people’s well-being. Face-to-face and digital social interaction could alleviate distress and improve well-being during a pandemic. However, the short-term psychological response to these modes of social interaction in the context of an ongoing pandemic warrants further exploration. We investigated how social activities in the past 24 hours were associated with short-term mental states (loneliness, sense of belonging and health) during the COVID-19 pandemic, and how associations varied due to age, gender and social isolation. Adults from the general public in Sweden (n = 697, 90.24% female, age m = 52.71, sd = 11.19) responded to ecological momentary assessments during 14 consecutive days in 2020. Based on 40,358 observations, people who socialized more face-to-face reported less loneliness, greater sense of belonging and health. These associations differed depending on social isolation and age. Digital social interactions were generally not associated with outcomes; however, people aged ≥70 years reported greater sense of belonging when they socialized digitally more than usual. Substituting face-to-face socializing with digital interactions may affect resiliency during prolonged pandemic restrictions.

Keywords [en]
social interaction, digital, face-to-face, COVID-19, loneliness, sense of belonging, self-rated health, Sweden
National Category
Psychology (excluding Applied Psychology)
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-497313OAI: oai:DiVA.org:uu-497313DiVA, id: diva2:1739749
Funder
Swedish National Board of Health and WelfareAvailable from: 2023-02-27 Created: 2023-02-27 Last updated: 2023-03-07
In thesis
1. Trauma-focused digital support, momentary psychological states, and long-term symptoms: Randomized controlled trial and ecological momentary assessment
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Trauma-focused digital support, momentary psychological states, and long-term symptoms: Randomized controlled trial and ecological momentary assessment
2023 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Perceived health, symptoms, and emotional states may fluctuate in response to coping efforts and support. The short- and long-term effects, benefits, and harms of trauma-focused self-management apps should be investigated. This thesis explored digital and face-to-face social activities in relation to same-day emotional states and health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the implications of using specific coping strategies for health and the effects of the unguided self-management app PTSD Coach for trauma-related complications were investigated. In Study I, 697 adults in Sweden responded to daily surveys (ecological momentary assessments) once a day during 14 consecutive days during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Studies II–IV, 179 trauma-exposed adults responded to 2 daily surveys during 21 consecutive days, and 4 retrospective surveys from 0 to 9 months later. Access to PTSD Coach or inactive waitlist was randomized (1:1) at baseline and restricted until 3 months later. Effects were analyzed with mixed-effects models that accounted for simultaneous within- and between-person effects (Studies I–II) or intention-to-treat models with imputed data of controlled effects (Study III) and within-group longitudinal changes (Study IV). 

Socializing face-to-face during the COVID-19 pandemic coincided with same-day lesser loneliness, greater sense of belonging, and better health. More digital social interaction than usual only related to same-day sense of belonging among people aged ≥ 70 years. Greater utilization than usual of perceived social support related to better same-day health among trauma-exposed adults. Access to PTSD Coach ameliorated posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms, and functional disability compared with waitlist controls and related to within-group reductions in somatic symptoms. Posttraumatic stress continued to decrease during the uncontrolled follow-up. Unguided access to PTSD Coach was considered slightly to moderately helpful. Access to PTSD Coach did not relate to deteriorated posttraumatic stress. Approximately half of the participants reported no negative effects, while ≤ 13% reported potential trauma-related reactions such as distressing memories related to using PTSD Coach. 

Face-to-face social interactions and perceived social support appear favorable for health. PTSD Coach is a slightly helpful trauma-focused self-management tool that may improve symptoms but also elicit negative effects. Future research could explore mechanisms of change and temporal, causal relationships between coping and health in order to optimize app interventions and resilience during crises.

Abstract [sv]

Hälsa, sjukdom och känslotillstånd kan fluktuera som reaktion på ansträngningar att hantera svårigheter och tillgång till stöd. Kort- och långsiktiga effekter, vinster och risker med traumafokuserade självhjälpsappar bör undersökas närmare. Avhandlingen avsåg att utforska kopplingen mellan socialt umgänge (digitalt eller genomfört personligen), samtidiga känslomässiga tillstånd och hälsa under COVID-19-pandemin. Dessutom undersöktes konsekvenserna av att nyttja specifika copingstrategier för hälsa samt effekter på traumarelaterade komplikationer av den oguidade självhjälpsappen PTSD Coach. 

I studie I svarade 697 vuxna i Sverige på dagliga enkäter, en gång per dag under 14 dagar, under COVID-19-pandemin. I studie II–IV svarade 179 vuxna som erfarit traumatiska händelser på dagliga enkäter, 2 gånger per dag under 21 dagar, och 4 retrospektiva enkäter från 0 till 9 månader senare. Tillgång till PTSD Coach eller inaktiv väntelista randomiserades (1:1). Data analyserades med multipel regression med modeller som inkluderade parallella inom- och mellanpersonseffekter (studie I–II) eller kontrollerade intention-to-treat-modeller (studie III) och longitudinella inomgruppsförändringar med imputerade data (studie IV).

Under COVID-19-pandemin sammanföll umgänge som skedde personligen med mindre ensamhet, större känsla av gemenskap och bättre hälsa samma dag. Mer digitalt umgänge än vanligt relaterade endast till större känsla av gemenskap samma dag hos personer ≥ 70 år. Att umgås och nyttja socialt stöd mer än vanligt relaterade till bättre hälsa samma dag hos vuxna som erfarit traumatiska händelser. Tillgång till PTSD Coach förbättrade posttraumatisk stress, depressiva symtom och funktionsnedsättning jämfört med kontrollgruppen, och relaterade till inomgruppsförbättringar av somatiska symtom. Posttraumatisk stress fortsatte att förbättras under den okontrollerade uppföljningen. Oguidad tillgång till PTSD Coach ansågs vara något till måttligt hjälpsamt och förvärrade inte posttraumatisk stress. Ungefär hälften av deltagarna rapporterade inga negativa effekter, medan ≤ 13 % rapporterade möjliga traumarelaterade reaktioner, såsom obehagliga minnen, kopplat till att använda PTSD Coach. 

Umgänge som sker personligen och upplevt socialt stöd verkar fördelaktigt för hälsa. PTSD Coach är ett något hjälpsamt traumafokuserat självhjälpsverktyg som kan förbättra symtom, men också frammana negativa reaktioner. Framtida undersökningar kan utforska bakomliggande mekanismer, temporala och kausala relationer mellan coping och hälsa för att optimera appinterventioner och motståndskraft vid kriser.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 2023. p. 78
Series
Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Medicine, ISSN 1651-6206 ; 1917
Keywords
mHealth, telemental health, app, PTSD Coach, trauma, potentially traumatic event, posttraumatic stress, PTSD, self-rated health, ecological momentary assessment, randomized controlled trial, COVID-19, pandemic, e-hälsa, digital hälsa, internetbehandling, app, PTSD Coach, trauma, posttraumatisk stress, PTSD, självskattad hälsa, COVID-19, pandemi
National Category
Psychiatry Psychology
Research subject
Psychiatry; Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-497321 (URN)978-91-513-1749-6 (ISBN)
Public defence
2023-05-17, Humanistiska teatern, Hus 22, Engelska parken, Thunbergsvägen 3C, Uppsala, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish National Board of Health and WelfareThe Swedish Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority
Note

The cover image was generated by the artificial intelligence tool DALL·E after input by Ida Hensler.

Available from: 2023-04-24 Created: 2023-03-07 Last updated: 2023-04-24

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Hensler, IdaSveen, JosefinBondjers, KristinaCernvall, MartinArnberg, Filip

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