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  • 1.
    Canevello, Amy
    et al.
    Univ N Carolina, Charlotte, NC, USA.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Walsh, James Igoe
    Univ N Carolina, Charlotte, NC, USA.
    Empathy-Mediated Altruism in Intergroup Contexts: The Roles of Posttraumatic Stress and Posttraumatic Growth2022In: Emotion, ISSN 1528-3542, E-ISSN 1931-1516, Vol. 22, no 8, p. 1699-1712Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Exposure to war-related violence is associated with greater pro-social behavior. Although researchers point to empathy and individual differences in posttraumatic growth to explain this relationship, there is no direct empirical evidence of the psychological process by which exposure to wartime violence leads to pro-sociality. In this investigation, we propose and test a comprehensive model of empathy-mediated altruism that addresses both how and when exposure to violence may be associated with pro-sociality. Results from a large-scale survey experiment conducted in a naturalistic field setting (1660 refugees from the wars in Syria and Iraq residing in Turkey) indicate that participants reported greater empathy and altruism toward ingroup versus outgroup targets, and that posttraumatic stress predicted less and posttraumatic growth predicted more empathy and altruism. Further, empathy mediated ingroup biases in altruism (i.e., allocation of resources to the self and others); this indirect effect was stronger for those reporting greater posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress. These results support our proposed model of empathy-mediated altruism that incorporates individual differences in response to war violence and ingroup preferences. 

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  • 2.
    Döring, Stefan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Drought exposure and altruism: Evidence from surveysManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
  • 3.
    Döring, Stefan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), Oslo, Norway.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Drought exposure decreases altruism with salient group identities as key moderator2023In: Nature Climate Change, ISSN 1758-678X, E-ISSN 1758-6798, Vol. 13, no 8, p. 856-861Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Previous research on climate change impact regularly considers conflict outcomes, thereby disregarding cooperative behaviour such as altruism. Drought has the potential to fuel inter-ethnic cleavages, thus contributing to conflicts. Yet this runs against resilience arguments suggesting people who experience environmental hardship are more cooperative. Here we examine altruism in survey experiments in a natural setting among refugees from Syria and Iraq. We match survey responses to observational data on drought and socioeconomic variables. Our findings speak to both arguments. First, we show that drought exposure is associated with decreased altruism for survey respondents generally. We further show how group identity moderates the relationship between drought and altruism. Our results suggest a decrease in altruism due to drought is much larger when the target of altruism is presented as a member of an antagonistic ethno-religious outgroup.

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  • 4.
    Gredebäck, Gustaf
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Haas, Sara
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Pollak, Seth
    Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
    Karakus, Dogukan Cansin
    Göttingen Graduate School of Social Sciences, University of Göettingen, Göttingen, Germany.
    Lindskog, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Social cognition in refugee children: An experimental cross-sectional study of emotional processing with Syrian families in Turkish communities2021In: Royal Society Open Science, E-ISSN 2054-5703, Vol. 8, no 8, article id 210362Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    More than 5.6 million people have fled Syria since 2011, about half of them children. These children grow up with parents that often suffer from war-related mental health problems. In this study, we assess emotional processing abilities of 6–18 year- old children growing up in families that have fled from Syria and reside in Turkish communities (100 families, 394 individuals). We demonstrate that mothers’, but not fathers’, post-traumatic stress (PTS) impacts children’s emotional processing abilities. A 4% reduction of mothers’ PTS was equivalent to 1 year of development in children, even when controlling for parents’ traumatic experiences. Making a small investment in increased mental health of refugee mothers might have a positive impact on the lives of their children.

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  • 5.
    Gredebäck, Gustaf
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Lindskog, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Fluid intelligence in refugee children: A cross-sectional study of potential risk and resilience factors among Syrian refugee children and their parents2022In: Intelligence, ISSN 0160-2896, E-ISSN 1873-7935, Vol. 94, article id 101684Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    We assess fluid intelligence of 6–18 year-old children growing up in families that have fled from Syria and reside in Turkish communities (100 families, 394 individuals). We demonstrate that fluid intelligence of refugee children is related to maternal fluid intelligence and to the amount of time mothers spend reading to their child. These factors stood out in the analysis even when controlling for a large range of other factors such as demographics, parental mental health, parental fluid intelligence, home environment, and a large array of potential enrichment factors.

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  • 6.
    Gredebäck, Gustaf
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Lindskog, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Poor maternal mental health is associated with a low degree of proactive control in refugee children2023In: Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, ISSN 1747-0218, E-ISSN 1747-0226Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This study assesses the development of proactive control strategies in 100 Syrian refugee families (394 individuals) with 6- to 18-year-old children currently living in Turkish communities. The results demonstrate that children’s age and their mothers’ post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with the degree of proactive control in their children, with worse mental health being associated with a larger reliance on reactive control and lesser reliance on proactive, future-oriented, control (measured via d′ in the AX-CPT task). None of the following factors contributed to children’s performance: fathers’ experience with post-traumatic stress, parents’ exposure to potentially traumatic warrelated events, perceived discrimination, a decline in socio-economic status, religious beliefs, parents’ proactive control strategies, or the education or gender of the children themselves. The association between mothers’ mental health and proactive control strategies in children was large (in terms of effect size), suggesting that supporting mothers’ mental health might have clear effects on the development of their children.

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  • 7.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, The Hugo Valentin Centre.
    Are Migrants More Extreme Than Locals After War?: Evidence From a Simultaneous Survey of Migrants in Sweden and Locals in BosniaManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
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    manuskript-migrants
  • 8.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Are Migrants More Extreme Than Locals After War? Evidence From A Simultaneous Survey of Migrants in Sweden and Locals in Bosnia2016In: Journal of Conflict Resolution, ISSN 0022-0027, E-ISSN 1552-8766, Vol. 60, no 1, p. 89-117Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Little is known about the attitudes of migrant populations originating from countries affected by conflict. This article examines a key assumption in the literature: that migrants harbor more conflictive attitudes than locals after war. Until now, we simply lacked the micro-level data necessary to examine migrant attitudes directly. Rather than relying on indirect evidence, I analyze new data from simultaneous surveys conducted in Sweden and Bosnia in 2010. As a whole, the empirical analysis supports the article’s novel theoretical approach. Under certain conditions, migration may promote inclusive and reconciliatory attitudes by improving access to coping resources and providing an exit from detrimental wartime and postwar conditions in origins countries

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  • 9.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, The Hugo Valentin Centre.
    Assimilation and Perceptions of War: A Micro-Level Analysis of Ex-Yugoslavs in SwedenManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
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  • 10.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Diasporas and Civil War2015In: War: an introduction to theories and research on collective violence / [ed] Tor Georg Jakobsen, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2015, 2, p. 217-236Chapter in book (Refereed)
  • 11.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Diasporas and Civil War2015In: War: An Introduction to Theories and Research on Collective Violence. 2nd Edition. / [ed] Tor G. Jakobsen, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2015, 2nd, p. 217-236Chapter in book (Refereed)
  • 12.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Diasporas and Civil War2011In: War: an introduction to theories and research on collective violence / [ed] Tor G. Jakobsen, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2011, p. 187-205Chapter in book (Refereed)
  • 13.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Integration of Refugees and Support for the Ethos of Conflict2018In: Journal of Conflict Resolution, ISSN 0022-0027, E-ISSN 1552-8766, Vol. 62, no 9, p. 2040-2067Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Following forced expulsion and campaigns of ethnic cleansing, substantial portions of national communities affected by conflict no longer live within the boundaries of the state. Nevertheless, existing wartime and postwar public opinion research is largely confined to countries directly affected by conflict. As a result, current research may overlook important war-affected populations and processes shaping their opinions. I address this problem by examining the question: does incorporation in settlement countries reduce support for conflict ideology? Examining this question requires new microdata. I examine the results of a large-scale survey of ex-Yugoslavs in Sweden. The findings suggest that incorporation undermines support for conflict ideology by increasing the socioeconomic security and social identity complexity of migrants. This has important implications for multiculturalism policies in the context of the current global migration crisis.

  • 14.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, The Hugo Valentin Centre.
    Migration and Perceptions of War: Simultaneous Surveys in Countries of Origin and Settlement2013Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    This dissertation contributes to post-war public opinion research by examining the perceptions of migrants – the gastarbeiter, the refugee, the family reunited after war – and the local population in comparative perspective. Existing surveys of post-war populations are typically conducted in a single country affected by war. However, particularly following forced expulsion and campaigns of ethnic cleansing substantial portions of national communities affected by conflict no longer live within the boundaries of the state. Current research may therefore overlook important populations as well as contextual factors that shape post-war attitudes.

    I help to address this problem by examining three widely held assumptions in the literature: that migrants hold more conflictive attitudes than the local population after war; that assimilation in settlement countries leads migrants to hold more peaceful attitudes; and that traumatic experiences lead migrants to hold more conflictive attitudes. These claims are largely based on theoretical accounts, case studies that suffer from selection bias and quantitative results that have proven unstable. By contrast, I examine new micro-level data: two large-scale surveys conducted simultaneously in post-war Bosnia and Sweden as a settlement country. Sweden’s choice to grant permanent residency in toto to refugees from the Bosnian War in 1993 resulted in the vast majority remaining settled in Sweden. As a result, the population of ex-Yugoslavs in Sweden is arguably more representative than in other comparable settlement country contexts.

    To explain differences among ex-Yugoslavs in Sweden and between these migrants and the local population in Bosnia, I connect social-psychological processes that help meet individuals’ basic psychological needs. These include: belief formation in the context of war; acculturation strategies in settlement countries; the development of nostalgic memories; and coping with traumatic experiences. The findings shed light on largely misunderstood processes. Under certain conditions, migration may provide an exit from detrimental wartime and post-war settings that produce and sustain conflictive societal beliefs after war. At the same time, the migration context may provide a richer set of socioeconomic and psychological resources for coping, offsetting the need to rely on conflictive beliefs as a way of dealing with the conflict crisis.

    List of papers
    1. Diasporas and Civil War
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>Diasporas and Civil War
    2011 (English)In: War: an introduction to theories and research on collective violence / [ed] Tor G. Jakobsen, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2011, p. 187-205Chapter in book (Refereed)
    Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
    New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2011
    National Category
    Other Social Sciences not elsewhere specified
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-198761 (URN)978-1-61761-139-1 (ISBN)978-1-61728-039-9 (ISBN)
    Available from: 2013-04-24 Created: 2013-04-24 Last updated: 2020-07-02Bibliographically approved
    2. Are Migrants More Extreme Than Locals After War?: Evidence From a Simultaneous Survey of Migrants in Sweden and Locals in Bosnia
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>Are Migrants More Extreme Than Locals After War?: Evidence From a Simultaneous Survey of Migrants in Sweden and Locals in Bosnia
    (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    National Category
    Other Social Sciences not elsewhere specified
    Research subject
    Peace and Conflict Research
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-198762 (URN)
    Available from: 2013-04-24 Created: 2013-04-24 Last updated: 2013-05-27Bibliographically approved
    3. Assimilation and Perceptions of War: A Micro-Level Analysis of Ex-Yugoslavs in Sweden
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assimilation and Perceptions of War: A Micro-Level Analysis of Ex-Yugoslavs in Sweden
    (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    National Category
    Other Social Sciences not elsewhere specified
    Research subject
    Peace and Conflict Research
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-198764 (URN)
    Available from: 2013-04-24 Created: 2013-04-24 Last updated: 2013-09-19Bibliographically approved
    4. War Trauma and Intergroup Trust
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>War Trauma and Intergroup Trust
    (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    National Category
    Social Sciences Interdisciplinary Other Social Sciences not elsewhere specified
    Research subject
    Peace and Conflict Research
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-198765 (URN)
    Available from: 2013-04-24 Created: 2013-04-24 Last updated: 2018-01-11Bibliographically approved
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    fulltext
    Download (jpg)
    Omslag
  • 15.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, The Hugo Valentin Centre.
    The Transnational Dimensions of Societal Reconciliation2010Report (Other academic)
  • 16.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, The Hugo Valentin Centre.
    War Trauma and Intergroup TrustManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
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    Manuskript-war trauma
  • 17.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Ahmad, Abeer
    tockholm International Peace Research Institute SIPRI, ,Solna, Sweden.
    Nordenving, Sofia
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Gredebäck, Gustaf
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Child development and resilience in war, conflict and displacement2022Report (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Approximately 452 million children were living in a conflict zone in 2020, and almost half of the roughly 80 million forcibly displaced people worldwide are children. Many of the countries most affected by conflict are developing countries with a young and growing population.

    War and displacement entail a wide range of adversity, with several negative impacts on children’s psychological development. These include mental health disorders, emotional and conduct problems, and impaired cognitive development, which have relevance for their life opportunities, including social relations, school performance and labour market success. While physical development is important, the development of the child’s emotional, social and cognitive abilities is equally crucial. The early years of childhood represent the ‘window of opportunity’ that shapes the child’s whole development experience throughout life. Research shows that the development potential of 250 million children under five years (around 43 per cent) in low- and middle-income countries is at stake. Also, there is a high probability that children will experience delayed early childhood development with exposure to local conflicts, and this delay increases with chronic exposure.

    Perhaps somewhat surprising, however, is that research has also uncovered widespread resilience and even increased prosocial behaviour among children exposed to war violence. Resilience is a broad concept concerning the capacity to respond when challenged, return to stability, adjust to a new normal, or transform to survive or flourish. One approach to building resilience is the protection of child mental health and development through providing special care in the early stages of a child’s life. Addressing children’s resilience and early childhood psychological development is essential to limit human suffering, rebuild war-torn societies and evade recurring conflicts. Therefore, an important question is: What could be done to protect child development in the midst of conflict?

    This SIPRI Topical Backgrounder provides an overview of existing aid-supported programmes and current practices to protect and promote children’s psychological development in war and displacement, followed by a review of a selection of rigorous research from the body of relevant literature to suggest ways forward.

  • 18.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kahn, Dennis
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Effekten av krig: Posttraumatisk stress och social tillit hos flyktingar2020Report (Refereed)
    Abstract [sv]

    Lyckad integration av flyktingar är en av de mest centrala utmaningarna för Sverige under det kommande seklet. Två viktiga aspekter är att säkerställa att flyktingar som har upplevt krigstrauma är vid god psykisk hälsa och socialt fungerande. I Delmi-rapporten ”Effekten av krig: Posttraumatisk stress och social tillit hos flyktingar” undersöks psykisk hälsa, social tillit och samarbetsvilja hos flyktingar i Sverige och Turkiet. Rapportförfattare är Jonathan Hall, fil. dr. i freds- och konfliktforskning vid Uppsala universitet och Dennis Kahn, fil. dr. i socialpsykologi vid Interdisciplinary Center, Herzliya, Israel.  

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  • 19.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kahn, Dennis
    Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Israel; Department of Psychology, Lund University, Sweden.
    Exposure to Wartime Trauma Decreases Positive Emotions and Altruism Toward Rival Out-Groups (But Not Nonrival Out-Groups): A Survey Experiment in a Field Setting Among Syrian Refugees2020In: Social Psychology and Personality Science, ISSN 1948-5506, E-ISSN 1948-5514, Vol. 11, no 4, p. 552-559Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    A survey experiment, carried out in a field setting among Sunni Arab Syrian refugees (N = 2,479), examined the effect of exposure to wartime trauma, ethnoreligious group affiliation, and degree of hostility of intergroup relations on altruism and positive emotional regard. The results showed that in-group targets were met with more positive emotional regard and altruism than relatively neutral out-group targets, which in turn were met with more positive emotional regard and altruism than individuals from a hostile out-group. These tendencies were elevated among participants with a high degree of exposure to wartime trauma. Emotions mediated the effect of ethnoreligious group affiliation on altruism, and this mediating effect was moderated by exposure to wartime trauma.

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  • 20.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kahn, Dennis
    Interdisciplinary Center, Herzliya, Israel.
    The Impact of War: Posttraumatic Stress and Social Trust Among Refugees2020Report (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The successful integration of refugees is one of the defining challenges for asylum countries such as Sweden in the 21st century. Two important aspects of successful integration are to ensure the psychological health and social functioning of refugees burdened with a recent traumatic past. Rigorous empircial research on these topics is needed in order to provide a sound basis for policy. In this report, we examine the psychological and social consequences of the experience of wartime trauma in refugee populations. There were two main purposes of the report. The first purpose was to explore how residency in different host societies shapes the development of posttraumatic stress among traumatized refugees. The second purpose was to examine how wartime trauma affects the tendency to trust and be altruistic towards others, including both members of one’s own group and ethnoreligious outgroups.

    We report a study in which refugees from Syria and Iraq residing in Sweden and Turkey engaged in economic games that provide behavioral measures of social trust and willingness to consider the welfare of others when distributing economic resources. We also assessed degree of exposure to wartime trauma and posttrau- matic stress symptoms among the refugee participants and related these measures to their behavior in the economic games.

    The main findings from the report can be summarized in two main points. First, refugees from the wars in Syria and Iraq residing in Sweden show a greater propen- sity to develop posttraumatic stress in response to traumatic wartime experiences compared to refugees living in Turkey. Second, while exposure to trauma resulted in more sectarianism – i.e. ingroup bias along ethnoreligious lines – in the Turkish sample, trauma did not affect sectarianism in the Swedish sample.

    With this report we seek to contribute to evidence-based policy and efforts to mit- igate negative consequences resulting from war trauma among refugees. More interventions may be needed to treat posttraumatic stress among refugees in Sweden. The refugees’ own ethnic and religious community may possibly have a key role to play in these efforts, since a sense of cultural, social and religious prox- imity and belongingness appeared to play a role in ameliorating the development of posttraumatic symptoms.

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  • 21.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kahn, Dennis T.
    Skoog, Eric
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Öberg, Magnus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    War exposure, altruism and the recalibration of welfare tradeoffs towards threatening social categories2021In: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, ISSN 0022-1031, E-ISSN 1096-0465, Vol. 94, article id 104101Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    How does war shape human altruism? Some find warfare increases generosity within groups only. Others maintain that war’s prosocial effects extend to outgroup members as well. To make sense of these disparate findings, we offer a theoretical framework that highlights the role of threat sensitivity in altruism. Refugees from Syria and Iraq (N = 1521) completed a welfare tradeoff task and threat perceptions scale where the other's group identity, gender and age were experimentally varied. We found that individuals belonging to social categories associated with more threat (outgroup members, males, and younger individuals) were afforded less altruism compared to individuals belonging to non-threatening social categories (ingroup members, females and the elderly). War exposure enhanced bias against threatening social categories through increased threat-sensitivity. Our results have implications for understanding how warfare shapes altruism and welfare tradeoffs in light of cross-cutting social categories and for policies promoting post-conflict cooperation.

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  • 22.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kerschbamer, Rudi
    University of Innsbruck, Austria.
    Neururer, Daniel
    University of Innsbruck, Austria.
    Skoog, Eric
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Uncovering sophisticated discrimination with the help of credence goods markups: evidence from a natural field experiment2019Report (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    We present the results of a pre-registered natural field experiment designed to uncover a sophisticated form of discrimination against an immigrant minority in a market for credence goods. For this purpose, we introduce two markups: (i) the credence goods markup defined as the difference between the price paid by the same person for an ordinary service and an otherwise equivalent credence goods service; and (ii) the dis- criminatory markup defined as the difference between the price paid by a member of an immigrant minority group and the price paid by a member of the majority group for the same kind of service. We document the existence of a large credence goods markup of about 40%, on average. Moreover, we find a sizeable discriminatory markup for the cre- dence goods service but no discriminatory markup for the ordinary service. The results of an ex-post survey suggest that this sophisticated form of discrimination is mainly due to the prejudicial behavior of sellers belonging to an established local ethnic minority group towards buyers belonging to a low-status immigrant ethnic minority group.

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  • 23.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kostic, Roland
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Integration for peace: integration and reconciliation among diasporas2009Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Many scholars argue that hostland social integration will encourage moderate political attitudes among diasporas. On the other hand, structural integration is thought to affect the opportunity structure of diasporas, but not their political attitudes. In this paper we offer an alternative explanation for the relationship between integration and diaspora attitudes. Our argument, based on findings in social psychology and social work, is that structural integration empowers diasporas to process and contextualize war-related experiences and make sense of daily life, and through the mechanism of a higher sense of coherence, enables them to envision a common future with other groups both in the host and homeland. We find support for our claims in a unique set of survey data collected amoung four diaspora populations in Sweden: structural integration encourages reconciliatory attitudes among diasporas, while social integration does not. Through their transnational engagement, structural integration of diasporas has the potential to encourage lasting peace in their homelands.

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    FULLTEXT01
  • 24.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Kovras, Iosif
    University of London, London, UK.
    Stefanovic, Djordje
    Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Canada.
    Loizides, Neophytos
    University of Kent, Kent, UK.
    Exposure to Violence and Attitudes Towards Transitional Justice2018In: Political Psychology, ISSN 0162-895X, E-ISSN 1467-9221, Vol. 39, no 2, p. 345-363Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Transitional justice has emerged to address victims’ needs as a means of restoring relations broken by violence. Yet we know little about victims’ attitudes towards different transitional justice mechanisms. Why do some victims prioritize retributive justice while others favor other forms of dealing with the violent past? What determines victims’ attitudes towards transitional justice policies? To address these questions, we offer a new theoretical framework that draws upon recent insights from the field of evolutionary psychology and links both war exposure and postwar environments to transitional justice preferences. We argue that both past experiences of wartime violence and present-day social interdependence with perpetrators impact transitional justice preferences, but in divergent ways (resulting in greater support for retributive vs. restorative justice measures, respectively). To test our framework, we rely upon a 2013 representative survey of 1,007 respondents focusing on general population attitudes towards transitional justice in Bosnia two decades after the implementation of the Dayton Accords. Specifically, we examine the impact of displacement, return to prewar homes, loss of property, loss of a loved one, physical injury, imprisonment, and torture on attitudes towards transitional justice. On the whole, our findings confirm our two main hypotheses: Exposure to direct violence and losses is associated with more support for retributive justice measures, while greater present-day interdependence with perpetrators is associated with more support for restorative justice measures. While acknowledging the legacy of wartime violence, we highlight the importance of the postwar context and institutional mechanisms that support victims in reconstructing their lives.

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  • 25.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Rapp, Carolin
    Department of Political Science, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen, Denmark.
    Eikemo, Terje
    Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology , Trondheim, Norway.
    Does Individual Health Have Implications for Individuals’ Attitudes towards Minority Groups?: A Case Study from the Greek Population2019In: The Journal of Refugee Studies, ISSN 0951-6328, E-ISSN 1471-6925, Vol. 32, no SI 1, p. i238-i252Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Immunological defence against pathogens and behavioural responses to members of other ethnic or racial groups may be understood as co-evolved solutions to a commonly recurring adaptive problem in our ancestral environment: the need to avoid infectious disease. In recent years, research on the concept of the behavioural immune system has highlighted behavioural defence, showing in particular that individual-level disgust sensitively is associated with greater prejudice towards members of other—particularly stigmatized—social groups. Stigma thus represents in part a human disease-avoidance strategy. This mechanism is thereby assumed to be particularly strong for individuals who report poor mental and/or physical health. In this article, we draw upon MIGHEAL data to examine how health vulnerabilities impact prejudice towards new immigrants in Greece—a key refugee- and migrant-receiving society. The findings have direct implications for the political consequences of health interventions: policies that result in enhanced immune-system functioning and resilience to health shocks may reduce prejudice towards new migrants, enhancing a society’s capacity to receive and integrate refugees and other migrants. Health policy may thus provide an avenue by which societies improve their responses to large-scale migration flows—a policy area that arguably represents the greatest moral crisis of our time.

  • 26.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Skoog, Eric
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Peace Research Institute Oslo.
    Vassiliou, Phaidon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    The Impact of War Exposure on Morality: Evidence From the Battle of Mosul2023In: Journal of Conflict Resolution, ISSN 0022-0027, E-ISSN 1552-8766Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The Battle of Mosul (2016–2017) was one of the most grueling urban warfare campaigns in recent memory. The fighting quickly concentrated in West Mosul, where civilians prevented by the Islamic State from leaving their homes experienced airstrikes and indiscriminate shelling by government forces. Utilizing the as-if-randomness of severe damage or destruction of people’s homes, this paper examines the impact of war exposure on the endorsement of moral foundations among a large and diverse sample of Mosul residents (N = 1027). Home damage increased binding morality but had a larger impact on individualizing morality, heightening concerns about fairness and protection from harm. A survey experiment in which the sectarian identity of the target was randomly assigned further revealed a strong association between individualizing morality and parochial altruism. Challenging conventional wisdom, both individualizing and binding morality reinforce group cohesion in ways that are functionally adaptive and responsive to the damage wrought by war.

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  • 27.
    Hall, Jonathan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Werner, Katharina
    School of Business, Economics and Information Systems, University of Passau, Passau, Germany.
    Trauma and Trust: How War Exposure Shapes Social and Institutional Trust Among Refugees2022In: Frontiers in Psychology, E-ISSN 1664-1078, Vol. 13, article id 786838Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The brutal wars in Iraq, Syria and now Ukraine have caused a massive influx of refugees to Europe. Turkey alone has received more than 4.8 million refugees. An important precondition for their economic and social incorporation is trust: refugees need to trust the citizens as well as the state and the justice system to find their place in the host country. Yet refugees’ propensity to trust may be affected by cultural differences between their home and host countries, their personal conflict exposure and the experiences they had on the run. This study investigates how individual differences in exposure to armed conflict and institutional breakdown shape two types of trust among refugees: Generalized social trust and trust in the institutions of the settlement country. We survey a large and diverse sample of refugees from Syria and Iraq living in Turkish communities and deploy well-established measures of conflict exposure, posttraumatic stress, and posttraumatic growth. We find that higher degrees of conflict exposure are positively related to social trust, and to trust in courts and the police. These positive findings are largely driven by refugees who had very personal and emotionally powerful experiences. The psychological mechanism of posttraumatic growth cannot explain these findings, however, suggesting positive experiences of cooperation in the midst of war and displacement are potentially a better explanation for this finding than positive psychological changes resulting from trauma. At the same time, conflict exposure is negatively related to trust in political institutions. Posttraumatic stress may be the mechanism behind this result. We discuss the implications of these findings for the integration of war refugees—a topic that is tragically of great relevance today.

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  • 28.
    Kangaslampi, Samuli
    et al.
    Tampere University.
    Peltonen, Kirsi
    University of Turku.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress: a network analysis among Syrian and Iraqi refugees2022In: European Journal of Psychotraumatology, ISSN 2000-8198, E-ISSN 2000-8066, Vol. 13, article id 2117902Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Background: Traumatic events related to war and displacement may lead to development of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), but many war trauma survivors also report experiencing posttraumatic growth (PTG). However, the phenomenon of PTG remains poorly understood among refugees. Previous findings are also contradictory on whether more PTSS associate with PTG and what specific symptoms or aspects of growth may account for any possible link.

    Objective and Method: Here, we aimed to better understand posttraumatic growth among refugees, especially its structure and most important constituent elements, as well as how it associates with PTSS. We employed regression and network analysis methods with a large sample (N = 3,159) of Syrian and Iraqi refugees living in Turkey self-reporting on PTG and PTSS.

    Results: We found PTG and PTSS to be clearly distinct phenomena. Still, they often co- occurred, with a positive, slightly U-shaped relationship found between levels of PTSS and PTG. The main bridge between the constructs was identified from intrusive symptoms to having new priorities in life, although new priorities were more peripheral to the overall network structure of PTG. Meanwhile, discovering new psychological strengths and abilities and a new path in life emerged as elements most central to PTG itself. 

    Conclusions: Many refugees report elements of PTG, even as they suffer from significant PTSS. The two phenomena appear distinct but positively associated, supporting the idea that intense cognitive processing involving distress may be necessary for growth after trauma. Our findings may inform efforts to support refugee trauma survivors in finding meaning and perhaps even growth after highly challenging experiences. 

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  • 29.
    Melander, Erik
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Öberg, Magnus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Are ‘New Wars’ More Atrocious?: Battle Severity, Civilians Killed and Forced Migration Before and After the End of the Cold Wa2009In: European Journal of International Relations, ISSN 1354-0661, E-ISSN 1460-3713, Vol. 15, no 3, p. 505-536Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    It is widely believed that the human impact of civil conflict in the present era is especially destructive. Proponents of the 'new wars' thesis hold that today's conflicts are fuelled by exclusive identities, motivated by greed in the absence of strong states, and unchecked by the disinterested great powers, resulting in increased battle severity, civilian death and displacement. The ratio of civilian to military casualties is claimed to have tilted, so that the overwhelming majority of those killed today are civilians. Using systematic data that are comparable across cases and over time we find that, contrary to the 'new wars' thesis, the human impact of civil conflict is considerably lower in the post-Cold War period. We argue that this pattern reflects the decline of ideological conflict, the restraining influence of globalization on governments, and the increasing rarity of superpower campaigns of destabilization and counter-insurgency through proxy warfare.

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  • 30.
    Melander, Erik
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Öberg, Magnus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Nothing New Under the Sun: The Atrociousness of 'New wars'2006Conference paper (Other academic)
  • 31.
    Melander, Erik
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Öberg, Magnus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    The ‘New Wars’ Debate Revisited: An Empirical Evaluation of the Atrociousness of ‘New Wars’2006Report (Other academic)
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  • 32.
    Peltonen, Kirsi
    et al.
    Department of Child Psychiatry and INVEST Research Flagship Center, University of Turku, Lemminkäisenkatu 3, 20014, Turku, Finland.
    Gredebäck, Gustaf
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Pollak, Seth D.
    University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA.
    Lindskog, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    The role of maternal trauma and discipline types in emotional processing among Syrian refugee children2023In: European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, ISSN 1018-8827, E-ISSN 1435-165X, Vol. 32, no 8, p. 1487-1495Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Stressful experiences in armed conflict incur intergenerational effects through parental behaviors with their children. A recent study reported that among Syrian refugee families, mothers' (but not fathers') post-traumatic stress (PTS) impacted children's emotional processing. In this study, we aim to shed further light on this phenomenon by analyzing how the parenting practices in the context of post-traumatic stress confers protection or risk for children's emotional processing. Participants were 6-18-year-old children (n = 212) and their mothers (n = 94), who fled from Syria and were residing in Turkish communities. We used the computer-based emotional processing task including photos of facial movements typically associated with different emotions to measure children's capacity for emotional processing. Mothers reported their PTS and the discipline types they use, as well as the contextual factors related to their refugee background. Linear mixed effect models were constructed first, to find out the discipline types that are most strongly associated with emotional processing of the child, and second, to examine whether these discipline types moderate the effect of maternal PTS on children's emotional processing. Finally, generalized linear models were constructed to examine which contextual factors are associated with the use of these discipline types by mothers. We found that spanking as a discipline type was associated with poorer child emotional processing, whereas withholding of media access was associated with better emotional processing. Younger and less religious mothers were more prone to use spanking. The study underlines the need for parenting programs alongside with efforts to address mental health issues among mothers living under armed conflict.

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  • 33.
    Skoog, Eric
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Karakus, Dogukan Cansin
    University of Göttingen, Germany.
    Kindness in the aftermath of cruelty?: The effects of exposure to war-time trauma on altruism across social categoriesManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    In the civil war literature, while conflict exposure has been shown to increase altruism, this altruism is usually predicted to be biased towards ingroup members. In this paper, we take a new approach to the war and altruism debate, by looking at the effect of war-time exposure for social categorizations beyond the standard ingroup/outgroup distinction. Based on threat-management theory, we argue that pro-sociality relies on more nuanced social categorizations including sex and age, with conflict exposure exacerbating altruism towards non-threatening social categories, even in the outgroup. However, this effect will not extend to threatening social categories. In particular, we expect young outgroup males to be the least likely targets of altrusim. We run a field experiment with a sample of 802 refugees from the ongoing conflicts in Syria and Iraq currently residing in Turkey, who perform a welfare tradeoff task. We show that levels of altruism generally follow the predictions from threat-management theory. Further, we show that the positive effects of exposure on altruism can extend also to outgroups, but only to non-threatening social categories. For the arguably most threatening category, outgroup young men, there is no altruism-enhancing effect of exposure to violence. Somewhat surprisingly, there is no increase in pro-sociality in the ingroup, and we discuss some possible explanations for this. These findings have important implications for interventions aimed at improving intergroup relations during conflict – such as reducing sectarian tensions in refugee communities - and in post-war settings.

  • 34.
    Skoog, Eric
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Karakus, Dogukan Cansin
    University of Göttingen, Germany.
    Kindness in the aftermath of cruelty?: The effects of exposure to war-time trauma on altruism across social categoriesManuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    In the civil war literature, while conflict exposure has been shown to increase altruism, this altruism is usually predicted to be biased towards ingroup members. In this paper, we take a new approach to the war and altruism debate, by looking at the effect of war-time exposure for social categorizations beyond the standard ingroup/outgroup distinction. Based on threat-management theory, we argue that pro-sociality relies on more nuanced social categorizations including sex and age, with conflict exposure exacerbating altruism towards non-threatening social categories, even in the outgroup. However, this effect will not extend to threatening social categories. In particular, we expect young outgroup males to be the least likely targets of altrusim. We run a field experiment with a sample of 802 refugees from the ongoing conflicts in Syria and Iraq currently residing in Turkey, who perform a welfare tradeoff task. We show that levels of altruism generally follow the predictions from threat-management theory. Further, we show that the positive effects of exposure on altruism can extend also to outgroups, but only to non-threatening social categories. For the arguably most threatening category, outgroup young men, there is no altruism-enhancing effect of exposure to violence. Somewhat surprisingly, there is no increase in pro-sociality in the ingroup, and we discuss some possible explanations for this. These findings have important implications for interventions aimed at improving intergroup relations during conflict – such as reducing sectarian tensions in refugee communities - and in post-war settings.

  • 35.
    Swain, Ashok
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    de Haan, JoopHall, JonathanUppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Islam and violent separatism: new democracies in Southeast Asia2007Collection (editor) (Refereed)
  • 36.
    Swain, Ashok
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Large-Scale Population Migration and Insecurity in the Middle East2019In: Routledge Handbook on Middle East Security / [ed] Anders Jägerskog, Michael Schulz & Ashok Swain, London: Routledge, 2019Chapter in book (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    There is an ongoing debate about whether the world is getting more violent or more peaceful. But, there is no illusion that the Middle East region has become less peaceful over the last decades. There is no dearth of violent conflicts and migrant communities, both old and new in this part of the world. In light of ongoing globalization, climate change, economic crisis and violent conflict in the Middle East, high levels of transnational migration flows will continue for the foreseeable future. The era of global interconnectedness facilitates these migrants to get more actively involved as parties in conflicts. Both migrant producing and receiving countries in the Middle East share a strong interest in understanding how the migrant groups may be encouraged to support peace, development and security rather than foment ethnic nationalism and war.

  • 37.
    Thompson, Peter Onah
    et al.
    Department of Government and Justice Studies, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA.
    Hall, Jonathan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Hecker, Tobias
    Faculty of Psychology, University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany.
    Walsh, James Igoe
    Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
    Posttraumatic stress moderates return intentions: A factorial survey experiment with internally displaced persons in Nigeria2023In: European Journal of Psychotraumatology, ISSN 2000-8198, E-ISSN 2000-8066, Vol. 14, no 2, article id 2277505Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Background: Persons displaced by conflict often consider returning to their area of origin. Lack of reliable information about conditions in the area of origin makes this decision more difficult. Displaced persons address this by seeking information from other sources, but must then assess the credibility of these sources.

    Objective: This study examines the role of symptoms of posttraumatic stress as a moderator of how information from a trustworthy source influences return intentions among displaced persons.

    Method: We test our hypotheses with a factorial survey experiment, drawing participants (N = 822) from residents of internally displaced person (IDP) camps in northeastern Nigeria.

    Results: Information from a more trustworthy source led to increased return intentions. However, the more participants reported symptoms of posttraumatic stress, the smaller the effect source trustworthiness had on their return intentions.

    Conclusions: Findings highlight how traumatic experiences during wartime can undermine the effectiveness of the provision of information from a trustworthy source about good conditions in displaced persons’ areas of origin, and suggest that interventions addressing posttraumatic stress could have downstream effects on safe, durable, and dignified return.

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