Abstract We use functionalized iron oxide magnetic multi-core particles of 100nm in size (hydrodynamic particle diameter) and AC susceptometry (ACS) methods to measure the binding reactions between the magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and bio-analyte products produced from DNA segments using the rolling circle amplification (RCA) method. We use sensitive induction detection techniques in order to measure the ACS response. The DNA is amplified via RCA to generate RCA coils with a specific size that is dependent on the amplification time. After about 75min of amplification we obtain an average RCA coil diameter of about 1µm. We determine a theoretical limit of detection (LOD) in the range of 11 attomole (corresponding to an analyte concentration of 55 fM for a sample volume of 200µL) from the ACS dynamic response after the MNPs have bound to the RCA coils and the measured ACS readout noise. We also discuss further possible improvements of the LOD.

We use functionalized iron oxide magnetic multi-core particles of 100 nm in size (hydrodynamic particle diameter) and AC susceptometry (ACS) methods to measure the binding reactions between the magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and bio-analyte products produced from DNA segments using the rolling circle amplification (RCA) method. We use sensitive induction detection techniques in order to measure the ACS response. The DNA is amplified via RCA to generate RCA coils with a specific size that is dependent on the amplification time. After about 75 min of amplification we obtain an average RCA coil diameter of about 1 µm. We determine a theoretical limit of detection (LOD) in the range of 11 attomole (corresponding to an analyte concentration of 55 fM for a sample volume of 200 µL) from the ACS dynamic response after the MNPs have bound to the RCA coils and the measured ACS readout noise. We also discuss further possible improvements of the LOD.

Recently, the activity on functionalized nano-objects has strongly increased. Yet, there are, to our knowledge no techniques available that visualize the attachment of molecules to nano-entities such as nanoparticles and graphene. In this work, we show a methodology to analyse the attachment of molecules to nanoparticles and graphene. The difficulty of such transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization consists in the high beam sensitivity of these nanoobjects. We employed a high resolution- as well as diffraction contrast-imaging methods to characterize graphene. First, we have developed a method to measure the thickness of free-standing graphene-like layers. The refinement of these imaging techniques enabled the imaging of functionalized C60 (fullerene) on top of a few-layer graphene flake by TEM. We also developed a methodology to visualize the attachment of functionalized gold and magnetic nanoparticles (different sizes) to nonstained and unlabeled single strand DNA-coils. This technique can be used to understand the interaction of a large variety of functionalized nanoparticles with their solution environment and/or macromolecular structures for their large applications.

The present work provides the first real-space analysis of nanobead-DNA coil interactions. Immobilization of oligonucleotide-functionalized magnetic nanobeads in rolling circle amplified DNA-coils was studied by complex magnetization measurements and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and a statistical analysis of the number of beads hybridized to the DNA-coils was performed. The average number of beads per DNAcoil using the results from both methods was found to be around 6 and slightly above 2 for samples with 40 and 130 nm beads, respectively. The TEM analysis supported an earlier hypothesis that 40 nm beads are preferably immobilized in the interior of DNA-coils whereas 130 nm beads, to a larger extent, are immobilized closer to the exterior of the coils. The methodology demonstrated in the present work should open up new possibilities for characterization of interactions of a large variety of functionalized nanoparticles with macromolecules, useful for gaining more fundamental understanding of such interactions as well as for optimizing a number of biosensor applications.

Conducting polymers are being considered promising candidates for sustainable organic batteries mainly due to their fast electron transport properties and high recyclability. In this work, key properties of polythiophene and polypyridine have been assessed through a combined theoretical and experimental study focusing on such applications. A theoretical protocol has been developed to calculate redox potentials in solution within the framework of the density functional theory and using continuous solvation models. Here, the evolution of the electrochemical properties of solvated oligomers as a function of the length of the chain is analyzed and then the polymer properties are estimated via linear regressions using ordinary least square. The predicted values were verified against our electrochemical experiments. This protocol can now be employed to screen a large database of compounds in order to identify organic electrodes with superior properties.

Organic compounds evolve as a promising alternative to the currently used inorganic materials in rechargeable batteries due to their low-cost, environmentally friendliness and flexibility. One of the strategies to reach acceptable energy densities and to deal with the high solubility of known organic compounds is to combine small redox active molecules, acting as capacity carrying centres, with conducting polymers. Following this strategy, it is important to achieve redox matching between the chosen molecule and the polymer backbone. Here, a synergetic approach combining theory and experiment has been employed to investigate this strategy. The framework of density functional theory connected with the reaction field method has been applied to predict the formal potential of 137 molecules and identify promising candidates for the referent application. The effects of including different ring types, e.g. fused rings or bonded rings, heteroatoms, [small pi] bonds, as well as carboxyl groups on the formal potential, has been rationalized. Finally, we have identified a number of molecules with acceptable theoretical capacities that show redox matching with thiophene-based conducting polymers which, hence, are suggested as pendent groups for the development of conducting redox polymer based electrode materials.

Development of advanced dressings with antimicrobial properties for the treatment of infected wounds is an important approach in the fight against evolution of antibiotic resistant bacterial strains. Herein, the effects of ion-crosslinked nanocellulose hydrogels on bacteria commonly found in infected wounds were investigated in vitro. By using divalent calcium or copper ions as crosslinking agents, different antibacterial properties against the bacterial strains Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were obtained. Calcium crosslinked hydrogels were found to retard S. epidermidis growth (up to 266% increase in lag time, 36% increase in doubling time) and inhibited P. aeruginosa biofilm formation, while copper crosslinked hydrogels prevented S. epidermidis growth and were bacteriostatic towards P. aeruginosa (49% increase in lag time, 78% increase in doubling time). The wound dressing candidates furthermore displayed barrier properties towards both S. epidermidis and P. aeruginosa, hence making them interesting for further development of advanced wound dressings with tunable antibacterial properties.

Calcium ion-crosslinked nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) hydrogels were investigated as potential materials for wound healing dressings. The physicochemical properties of the hydrogels were examined by rheology and water retention tests. Skin cells and monocytes were selected for application-oriented bio-compatibility studies. The NFC hydrogels presented entangled fibrous networks and solid-like behavior. Water retention tests showed the material's potential to maintain a suitable moist environment for different type of wounds. The hydrogels did not affect dermal fibroblasts monolayer cultures upon directcontact, as cell monolayers remained intact after application, incubation and removal of the materials. Inflammatory response studies with blood-derived mononuclear cells revealed the inert nature of the hydrogels in terms of cytokine secretion and reactive oxygen species production. Results highlight the great potential of ion-crosslinked NFC hydrogels for the development of advanced wound dressings, where further functionalization of the material could lead to improved properties towards the healing of specific wound types.

Magnetic biosensors are promising candidates for low-cost point-of-care biodiagnostic devices. For optimal efficiency it is crucial to minimize the time and complexity of the assay protocol including target recognition, amplification, labeling and read-out. In this work, possibilities for protocol simplifications for a DNA biodetection principle relying on hybridization of magnetic nanobeads to rolling circle amplification (RCA) products are investigated. The target DNA is recognized through a padlock ligation assay resulting in DNA circles serving as templates for the RCA process. It is found that beads can be present during amplification without noticeably interfering with the enzyme used for RCA (phi29 polymerase). As a result, the bead-coil hybridization can be performed immediately after amplification in a one-step manner at elevated temperature within a few minutes prior to read-out in an AC susceptometer setup, i.e. a combined protocol approach. Moreover, by recording the phase angle xi = arctan(chi ''/chi'), where chi and chi '' are the in-phase and out-of-phase components of the AC susceptibility, respectively, at one single frequency the total assay time for the optimized combined protocol would be no more than 1.5 hours, often a relevant time frame for diagnosis of cancer and infectious disease. Also, applying the phase angle method normalization of AC susceptibility data is not needed. These findings are useful for the development of point-of-care biodiagnostic devices relying on bead-coil binding and magnetic AC susceptometry.

Nanoelectrodes were fabricated combining photolithography, electron beam lithography and focused ion beam milling allowing for large scale integration and nanoengineering of the electrode properties. The structure determination by transmission and scanning electron microscopy showed a highly reproducible gap width. The atomic scale electrode structure was characterized using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The nanogap resistances were found to be the highest hitherto reported for nanogaps, namely in the 300–1300 TΩ range. Gold nanoparticles were trapped by ac dielectrophoresis, and the electrodes were shown to be stable enough to endure empty gap voltages as high as 5 V as well as currents high enough to induce fusing of trapped nanoparticles.

We present here a detailed study of the controlled release of amino acid derived amphiphilic molecules from the internal pore structure of mesoporous nanoparticle drug delivery systems with different structural properties; namely cubic and hexagonal structures of various degrees of complexity. The internal pore surface of the nanomaterials presented has been functionalised with amine moieties through a one pot method. Release profiles obtained by Alternating Ionic Current measurements are interpreted in terms of specific structural and textural parameters of the porous nanoparticles such as pore geometry and connectivity. Results indicate that diffusion coefficients are lower by as much as four orders of magnitude in 2-dimensional structures in comparison to 3-dimensional mesoporous solids. A fast release in turn is observed from mesocaged materials AMS-9 and AMS-8 where the presence of structural defects is thought to lead to a slightly lower diffusion coefficient in the latter. Amount of pore wall functionalisation and number of binding sites on the model drug are found to have little effect on the drug release rate.

The aim of this study is to show the potential of using electrodynamic methods as characterization tools in the controlled drug release process, on complex drug release systems. The two formulations under study were a Carbopol gel containing diphenhydramine and an identical gel also containing the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate which forms catanionic vesicles with the diphenhydramine. The average diffusion coefficients were calculated from both the dielectric spectroscopy and the transient current measurements. Comparing the herein-obtained diffusion coefficients with those obtained in another study using a traditional USP technique for the same system, the values are virtually the same. The two electrodynamic methods proved to be potentially valuable tools for obtaining information about the concentration and the motion of the drug molecules inside the gel. The transient current measurements are particularly interesting in this case, as the method gives information not only on an average level, but also of the different charged moieties separately. Interestingly, it seems that the methods also are applicable for obtaining information about the mesh size in the gel.

The possibility to fast-load biomimetic hydroxyapatite coatings on surgical implant with the antibiotics Amoxicillin, Gentamicin sulfate, Tobramycin and Cephalothin has been investigated in order to develop a multifunctional implant device offering sustained local anti-bacterial treatment and giving the surgeon the possibility to choose which antibiotics to incorporate in the implant at the site of surgery. Physical vapor deposition was used to coat titanium surfaces with an adhesion enhancing gradient layer of titanium oxide having an amorphous oxygen poor composition at the interface and a crystalline bioactive anatase TiO₂ composition at the surface. Hydroxyapatite (HA) was biomimetically grown on the bioactive TiO₂ to serve as a combined bone in-growth promoter and drug delivery vehicle. The coating was characterized using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The antibiotics were loaded into the HA coatings via soaking and the subsequent release and antibacterial effect were analyzed using UV spectroscopy and examination of inhibition zones in a Staphylococcus aureus containing agar. It was found that a short drug loading time of 15 min ensured antibacterial effects after 24 h for all antibiotics under study. It was further found that the release processes of Cephalothin and Amoxicillin consisted of an initial rapid drug release that varied unpredictably in amount followed by a reproducible and sustained release process with a release rate independent of the drug loading times under study. Thus, implants that have been fast-loaded with drugs could be stored for ~10 min in a simulated body fluid after loading to ensure reproducibility in the subsequent release process. Calculated release rates and measurements of drug amounts remaining in the samples after 22 h of release indicated that a therapeutically relevant dose could be achieved close to the implant surface for about 2 days. Concluding, the present study provides an outline for the development of a fast-loading slow-release surgical implant kit where the implant and the drug are separated when delivered to the surgeon, thus constituting a flexible solution for the surgeon by offering the choice of quick addition of antibiotics to the implant coating based on the patient need.

Temperature-dependent drug release from disintegrating tablets made of NaCl-containing agglomerated micronized cellulose (AMC) granules has been studied to characterize the release process. Release measurements on tablets compacted at three different compaction pressures; 50, 100, and 200 MPa, were performed at seven different temperatures; 6, 23, 33, 43, 50, 55, and 63°C using the recently developed alternating ionic current method. Tablets compacted at different compaction pressures showed similar release rates. The release process was found to be diffusion-controlled, and the activation energy of the diffusion coefficient was comparable to that obtained for diffusion in pure water. The results show that the AMC granules in contact with water swell to a size and shape that is only slightly affected by their compaction history and the ion diffusion operates mainly within liquid-filled pores within the AMC granules. By using the temperature dependence of the release process, it was possible to reach this conclusion without any assumptions concerning the number and radii of the granules into which the tablets disintegrated. Further, the magnitude of the effective diffusion coefficient was found to be ∼7.5 · 10⁻¹⁰ cm²/s, which is ∼four orders of magnitude lower than for unhindered diffusion of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in water but similar to the diffusion coefficient for protons and OH⁻ ions in microcrystalline cellulose.

We investigate the ion transportpercolationproperties of a binary system of an ion conductor (NaCl) and an insulator (ethyl cellulose) for which the ac component of the conductivity is non-negligible over the entire measured frequency range. We find that the dc conductivity, extracted from a well-defined range of frequencies, can be described by a low percolation threshold, ϕc=0.06 three-dimensional conducting network. The low ϕc was explained by the water-layer-assisted ion conduction in micrometer-sized ethyl cellulose channels between NaCl grains. The present findings provide valuable knowledge for the analysis and design of a broad class of ion conducting functional materials.

The combined radial and axial ionic drug release from – as well as the percolating ionic conductivity in – cylindrical tablets was investigated by the alternating ionic current (AIC) method and dielectric spectroscopy (DS), respectively. The binary tablets consisted of mixtures of insulating ethyl cellulose and the poor ionic conductor model drug NaCl at nine different concentrations. We found that the dc conductivity, extracted from DS in a well-defined range of frequencies by a power-law method, could be described by a NaCl volume fraction percolation threshold of 0.06 in a 3D conducting network. The low threshold was explained by water-layer-assisted ion conduction in μm-sized ethyl cellulose channels between NaCl grains as probed by Hg porosimetry and SEM. The drug release process, as probed by AIC, could be described by a matrix porosity percolation threshold of 0.22, equivalent to a NaCl volume fraction of 0.13. The higher percolation threshold found in the drug release experiments as compared to the DS recordings could be explained by the different probing mechanisms of the analysis methods. The present study should provide valuable knowledge for the analysis of a broad class of ion conducting systems for which the frequency response of the dc ion conductivity is superimposed on other dielectric processes in the dielectric spectrum. It also brings forward knowledge important for the development of controlled drug-delivery vehicles as the presented findings show that the drug release from matrix tablets with unsealed tablet walls substantially differs from earlier investigated release processes for which the drug has only been allowed to escape through one of the flat tablet surfaces.

Release of NaCl in both the axial and radial directions from cylindrical ethyl cellulose tablets were investigated by the alternating ionic current method. The pore structure of the investigated binary mixtures was examined by mercury porosimetry and scanning electron microscopy, and the nm range fractal surface dimension of tablet pore walls was extracted from krypton gas adsorption isotherms. The drug release was shown to consist of two overlapping processes of which the first was ascribed to dissolution of NaCl close to the tablet boundary followed by subsequent diffusion through a thin ethyl cellulose layer and a second from which a porosity percolation threshold of 0.22 could be extracted. As well, a cross-over to effective-medium behaviour at a porosity of 0.44 was observed. The presented findings showed that drug release from matrix tablets with unsealed tablet walls substantially differs from earlier investigated release processes for which the drug has only been allowed to escape through one of the flat tablet surfaces. Thus, the present study brings forward knowledge important for the tailoring of controlled drug delivery vehicles with optimum release patterns.

 One method to increase the clinical success rate of metal implants is to increase their bone bonding properties, i.e. to develop a bone   bioactive surface leading to reduced risks of interfacial problems.   Much research has been devoted to modifying the surface of metals to   make them become bioactive. Many of the proposed methods include   depositing a coating on the implant. However, there is a risk of coating failure due to low substrate adhesion. This paper describes a method to obtain bioactivity combined with a high coating adhesion via   a gradient structure of the coating. Gradient coatings were deposited   on Ti (grade 5) using reactive magnetron sputtering with increasing   oxygen content. To increase the grain size in the coating, all coatings   were post annealed at 385 degrees C. The obtained coating exhibited a gradual transition over 70 nm from crystalline titanium oxide (anatase)  at the surface to metallic Ti in the substrate, as shown using  cross-section transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron   spectroscopy depth pro. ling. Using scratch testing, it could be shown that the adhesion to the substrate was well above 1 GPa. The bioactivity of the coating was verified in vitro by the spontaneous   formation of hydroxylapatite upon storage in phosphate buffer solution at 37 degrees C for one week.   The described process can be applied to implants irrespective of bulk  metal in the base and should introduce the possibility to create safer permanent implants like reconstructive devices, dental, or spinal implants.

Biofilms are the most prevalent mode of microbial life in nature and are 10-1000 times more resistant to antibiotics than planktonic bacteria. Persistent biofilm growth associated at the margin of a dental restoration often leads to secondary caries, which remains a challenge in restorative dentistry. In this work, we present the first in vitro evaluation of on-demand photocatalytic inactivation of biofilm on a novel dental adhesive containing TiO2 nanoparticles. Streptococcus mutans biofilm was cultured on this photocatalytic surface for 16 h before photocatalytic treatment with ultraviolet-A (UV-A) light. UV-A doses ranging from 3 to 43 J/cm(2) were applied to the surface and the resulting viability of biofilms was evaluated with a metabolic activity assay incorporating phenol red that provided a quantitative measure of the reduction in viability due to the photocatalytic treatments. We show that an UV-A irradiation dose of 8.4 J/cm(2) leads to one order of magnitude reduction in the number of biofilm bacteria on the surface of the dental adhesives while as much as 5-6 orders of magnitude reduction in the corresponding number can be achieved with a dose of 43 J/cm(2). This material maintains its functional properties as an adhesive in restorative dentistry while offering the possibility of a novel dental procedure in the treatment or prevention of bacterial infections via on-demand UV-A irradiation. Similar materials could be developed for the treatment of additional indications such as peri-implantits.

Titania (TiO2) induced photocatalysis has been widely investigated and applied as a disinfectionstrategy in many industrial and clinical applications. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), including hydroxylradicals (•OH), superoxide radicals ( •−2 O ) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), generated in thephotocatalytic reaction process are considered to be the active components prompting the bactericidaleffect. In the present work, the kinetics of photocatalytic inactivation of Staphylococcus epidermidisand specific contributions of •OH, •−2 O and H2O2 to the bactericidal process were studiedusing two disinfection settings sutilizing photocatalytic resin-TiO2 nanocomposite surfacesand suspended TiO2 nanoparticles, respectively. In antibacterial tests against S. epidermidis with alayer of bacterial suspension on the resin-TiO2 surfaces, H2O2 was found to be the most efficientROS component contributing to the antibacterial effect. Disinfection kinetics showed a two-stepbehavior with an initial region having a lower disinfection rate followed by a higher rate regionafter 10 min of UV irradiation. By contrast, in antibacterial tests with suspended bacteria andphotocatalytic TiO2 nanoparticles, •OH and H2O2 showed equal significance in the bacterial inactivationhaving a typical Chick-Watson disinfection kinetics behavior with a steady disinfection rate.The results contribute to the understanding of the bactericidal mechanism and kinetics of photocatalyticdisinfection that are essential for designing specific antibacterial applications of photocatalyticmaterials.

Photocatalysis induced by TiO2 and UV light constitutes a decontamination and antibacterial strategy utilized in many applications including self-cleaning environmental surfaces, water and air treatment. The present work reveals that antibacterial effects induced by photocatalysis can be maintained even after the cessation of UV irradiation. We show that resin-based composites containing 20% TiO2 nanoparticles continue to provide a pronounced antibacterial effect against the pathogens Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus mutans and Enterococcus faecalis for up to two hours post UV. For biomaterials or implant coatings, where direct UV illumination is not feasible, a prolonged antibacterial effect after the cessation of the illumination would offer new unexplored treatment possibilities.

Several materials, like bioglasses, sintered hydroxyapatite and Ti metals and alloys, have the ability to bond to living bone in vivo, which is a desirable property of biomaterials called bioactivity. In this work, we present a novel strategy to develop bioactivity on the non-bioactive surface of a resin-TiO2 nanocomposite through photocatalysis. The results show that UV irradiation (365 nm, 10 mW cm(-2)) for 8 to 16 h on the resin-TiO2 nanocomposite immersed in water induces bioactivity as indicated by hydroxyapatite growth following immersion of the samples in Dulbecco's phosphate buffered saline for 7 days at 37 degrees C. While a nonirradiated resin-TiO2 surface did not show any hydroxyapatite deposition, a surface after 16 h of UV irradiation was fully covered by hydroxyapatite. In vitro cell adhesion of osteoblast-like MG63 cells confirmed the biocompatibility and bioactivity of the resin-TiO2 surfaces with a hydroxyapatite deposition layer, while the non-irradiated resin-TiO2 surface showed no cell adhesion. Resin-TiO2 nanocomposites, with or without UV irradiation, proved to be nontoxic to two human cell lines, human dermal fibroblasts (hDF) and MG63 cells. It was also shown that an increased dose of UV irradiation decreased bacterial adhesion, which is an additional benefit of the UV treatment and a favourable property for biomedical applications. The combined benefits of biocompatibility, bioactivity, decreased bacterial adhesion and the highly efficient disinfection property of TiO2 photocatalysis under UV light make this resin-TiO2 material an interesting candidate for implant and biomedical device applications.

The aim of the present work was to evaluate several methods for analyzing the viability of bacteria after antibacterial photocatalytic treatment. Colony-forming unit (CFU) counting, metabolic activity assays based on resazurin and phenol red and the Live/Dead^® BacLight™ bacterial viability assay (Live/Dead staining) were employed to assess photocatalytically treated Staphylococcus epidermidis and Streptococcus mutans. The results showed conformity between CFU counting and the metabolic activity assays, while Live/Dead staining showed a significantly higher viability post-treatment. This indicates that the Live/Dead staining test may not be suitable for assessing bacterial viability after photocatalytic treatment and that, in general, care should be taken when selecting a method for determining the viability of bacteria subjected to photocatalysis. The present findings are expected to become valuable for the development and evaluation of photocatalytically based disinfection applications