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  • 1.
    Abegunawardana, Sidath
    et al.
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Bodhika, J A P
    Univ Ruhuna, Dept Phys, Matara, Sri Lanka.
    Abewardhana, Ruwan
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Fernando, Mahendra
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Sound Source Localization of Lightning Discharges2018Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The lightning channel can be retraced by thunder signature recorded with an array of microphones. Four microphones were arranged to capture thunder sound, and acoustic cross-correlation of captured pressure signals estimated the time lag of each pair of microphones. A wave segment with 0.25 s or 0.5 s of duration was compared with the acoustic signal recorded by other microphones to estimate time lapse. The direction of channel propagation has been estimated by the time difference of arrival of each pair of microphones. Thunder source locations estimated by this method can be extended to investigate the channel propagation inside clouds.

  • 2.
    Abegunawardana, Sidath
    et al.
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Bodhika, J A P
    Univ Ruhuna, Dept Phys, Matara, Sri Lanka.
    Nanayakkara, Sankha
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Sonnadara, Upul
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Fernando, Mahendra
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Audible Frequency Analysis of Ground Flashes2018Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Thunder signatures categorized into three types based on peak pressure and variation in fundamental frequency, have been studied by using acoustic spectrum of thunder. S-transformation has been used to estimate the dominant frequency variation around the peak pressure. The mean fundamental frequencies of type 3 ground and cloud flashes are 160 Hz and 98 Hz respectively. The mean frequencies of type 2 ground and cloud flashes are 108 Hz and 82 Hz respectively.

  • 3.
    Abewardhana, Ruwan
    et al.
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Abegunawardana, Sidath
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Fernando, Mahendra
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Sonnadara, Upul
    Univ Colombo, Dept Phys, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Lightning Localization Based on VHF Broadband Interferometer Developed in Sri Lanka2018In: 2018 34th international conference on lightning protection (ICLP 2018), New York: IEEE, 2018Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    A basic broadband digital interferometer was developed, which is capable of locating Very High Frequency (VHF) radiation sources in two spatial dimensions and time. Three antennas sensed the time series of broadband electromagnetic (EM) signals and digitized with 4 ns sampling interval for a duration of several milliseconds. A technique based on cross-correlations has been implemented for mapping lightning source locations. A map of the first return stroke (RS) and the preceding stepped leader was mapped successfully, using the system with a time resolution of few milliseconds. The result was compared with the visible events of the ground flash to validate the system.

  • 4. Ahmad, M R
    et al.
    Esa, M R M
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Measurement of bit error rate at 2,4 GHz due to lightning interference2012In: Proceeding of the 31st International Conference on Lightning Protection ICLP 2012, 2012Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This paper analyzes the interference of lightning flashes with wireless communication systems operating in the microwave band at 2.4 GHz. A bit error rate (BER) measurement method was used to evaluate BER during 3 heavy thunderstorms on January 25, March 17 and March 20, all in year 2011. In addition, BER measurements also were done on January 21 and March 30, 2011 under fair weather (FW) conditions providing a baseline for comparison. The Transmitter-Receiver separation was fixed at 10 meter with line-of-sight (LOS) consideration. We infer that lightning interfered with the transmitted digital pulses which resulted in a higher recorded BER. The maximum recorded BER was 9.9·101 and the average recorded BER was 9.95·10 -3 during the thunderstorms with the average fair weather BER values under the influence of adjacent channel interference (ACI) and co-channel interference (CCI) being 1.75·10-5 and 7.35·10 -6 respectively. We conclude that wireless communication systems operating at 2.4 GHz microwave frequency can be significantly interfered by lightning.

  • 5.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Esa, Mona Riza Binti Mohd
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Narrow bipolar pulses and associated microwave radiation2013Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 6.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Esa, Mona Riza Binti Mohd
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Dutkiewicz, Eryk
    Interference from cloud-to-ground and cloud flashes in wireless communication system2014In: Electric power systems research, ISSN 0378-7796, E-ISSN 1873-2046, Vol. 113, p. 237-246Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this study, cloud-to-ground (CG) flash and intra-cloud (IC) flash events that interfere with the transmission of bits in wireless communication system operating at 2.4 GHz were analyzed. Bit error rate (BER) and consecutive lost datagram (CLD) measurement methods were used to evaluate BER and burst error from 3 tropical thunderstorms on November 27, 28, and 29 during 2012 northeastern monsoon in Malaysia. A total of 850 waveforms from the electric field change recording system were recorded and examined. Out of these, 94 waveforms of very fine structure were selected which matched perfectly with the timing information of the recorded BER. We found that both CG and IC flashes interfered significantly with the transmission of bits in wireless communication system. The severity of the interference depends mainly on two factors namely the number of pulses and the amplitude intensity of the flash. The interference level becomes worst when the number of pulses in a flash increases and the amplitude intensity of pulses in a flash intensifies. During thunderstorms, wireless communication system has experienced mostly intermittent interference due to burst error. Occasionally, in the presence of very intense NBP event, wireless communication system could experience total communication lost. In CG flash, it can be concluded that PBP is the major. source of interference that interfered with the bits transmission and caused the largest burst error. In IC flash, we found that the typical IC pulses interfered the bits transmission in the same way as PBP and mixed events in CG flash and produced comparable and in some cases higher amount of burst error. NBP has been observed to interfere the bits transmission more severely than typical IC and CG flashes and caused the most severe burst error to wireless communication system.

  • 7.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Esa, Mona Riza Binti Mohd
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Dutkiewicz, Eryk
    Performance analysis of audio streaming over lightning-interfered MIMO channels2012Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 8.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Esa, Mona Riza Binti Mohd
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Dutkiewicz, E.
    Wireless Communications and Networking Lab, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australien.
    Lightning interference in multiple antennas wireless communication systems2012In: Journal of Lightning Research, ISSN 1652-8034, Vol. 4, p. 155-165Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This paper analyzes the interference of lightning flashes with multiple antennas wireless communicationsystems operating in the microwave band at 2.4 GHz and 5.2 GHz. A bit error rate (BER) measurement method was usedto evaluate BER and packet error rate (PER) during 5 heavy thunderstorms on January 25 and March 17 to 20, 2011,respectively. In addition, BER measurements also were done on January 21 and March 30, 2011 under fair weather (FW)conditions providing a baseline for comparison. The Transmitter-Receiver separation was fixed at 10 meter with line-ofsight(LOS) consideration. We infer that lightning interfered with the transmitted digital pulses which resulted in a higherrecorded BER. The maximum recorded BER was 9.9·10-1 and the average recorded BER and PER were 2.07·10-2 and2.44·10-2 respectively during the thunderstorms with the average fair weather BER and PER values under the influence ofadjacent channel interference (ACI) and co-channel interference (CCI) being 1.75·10-5 and 7.35·10-6 respectively. Weconclude that multiple antennas wireless communication systems operating at the microwave frequency can besignificantly interfered by lightning.

  • 9.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Mohd Esa, Mona Riza Binti
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Hettiarachchi, Pasan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Preliminary Observations of Lightning Signature At 2400 MHz in Sweden Thunderstorm2012In: / [ed] BinSulaiman, HA; Jaafar, A, NEW YORK: IEEE , 2012, p. 88-91Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This paper presents a preliminary observation of lightning signature at 2400 MHz. We believe this is the first time such observation was made in such frequency band. One positive ground discharge and one cloud discharge waveforms have been selected from a collection of waveforms recorded using fast and slow broadband antenna systems. In addition, waveforms recorded directly from 2400 MHz whip antenna associated with the selected ground and cloud discharges waveforms were observed. The measurements were carried out in Uppsala, Sweden in July 2012. We discovered a possible lightning signature at 2400 MHz with the existence of bursts of pulses happened to occur simultaneously with preliminary breakdown, negative return stroke and cloud pulses. These bursts of pulses possibly interfered in some ways with the transmitted bits leading to higher recorded error bits during the thunderstorm.

  • 10.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Mohd Esa, Mona Riza
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Occurrence of Narrow Bipolar Event as Part of Cloud-to-Ground Flash in Tropical Thunderstorms2014Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 11.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Mohd Esa, Mona Riza
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Similarity between the Initial Breakdown Pulses of Negative Ground Flash and Narrow Bipolar Pulses2014In: 2014 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIGHTNING PROTECTION (ICLP), IEEE conference proceedings, 2014, p. 810-813Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this paper, temporal characteristics of several initial electric field pulses of preliminary breakdown process (PBP) from very close negative cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes are compared to close narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) to observe any similarity that may exists. Interestingly, we found that the initial PBP pulses are similar to close NBP with zero crossing time less than 5 mu s, do not preceded by any slow field change and followed by pronounce static component. As NBPs are believed to be a result of relativistic runaway electron avalanches discharge, this finding is an indication that the initial electric field pulses of PBP are perhaps the result of the same discharge mechanism.

  • 12.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Mohd Esa, Mona Riza
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Baharudin, Zikri Abadi
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity. Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka.
    Hettiarachchi, Pasan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Latitude Dependence of Narrow Bipolar Pulse Emissions2015In: Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, ISSN 1364-6826, E-ISSN 1879-1824, Vol. 128, p. 40-45Article in journal (Refereed)
  • 13.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Mohd Esa, Mona Riza
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Hettiarachchi, Pasan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Baharudin, Zikri Abadi
    Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka.
    Electric Field Signature of Narrow Bipolar Pulse Observed in Sweden2014In: Atmospheric research, ISSN 0169-8095, E-ISSN 1873-2895Article in journal (Refereed)
  • 14.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Mohd Esa, Mona Riza
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Johari, Dalina
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Ismail, Mohd Muzafar
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Chaotic Pulse Train in Cloud-to-Ground and Cloud Flashes of Tropical Thunderstorms2014Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this paper, we report for the first time the observation of chaotic pulse train (CPT) preceding natural subsequent negative return strokes and also CPT occurrence in IC flashes from tropical thunderstorms in South Malaysia. In CG flashes, all CPTs were occurred in between return strokes with 41.1% have occurred between the first and second return strokes. The maximum number of CPT in one sequence is 3, which can be observed between the first and third return strokes only. In IC flashes, all CPTs were observed to occur in between IC flash pulses.

  • 15.
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    et al.
    UTEM, Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Periannan, Dinesh
    UTEM, Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Sabri, Muhammad Haziq Mohammad
    UTEM, Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Abd Aziz, Mohamad Zoinol Abidin
    UTEM, Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Esa, Mona Riza Mohd
    UTM, Inst Voltan Tinggi & Arus Tinggi IVAT, Johor Bharu, Malaysia.
    Lu, Gaopeng
    Chinese Acad Sci, Beijing, Peoples R China.
    Zhang, Hongbo
    Chinese Acad Sci, Beijing, Peoples R China.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Emission Heights of Narrow Bipolar Events in a Tropical Storm over the Malacca Strait2017In: 2017 International Conference On Electrical Engineering And Computer Science (Icecos), IEEE , 2017, p. 305-309Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Emission heights for narrow bipolar events (NBEs) have been reported mostly from observations at mid latitudes but none have been reported from tropical regions. In this paper, we are reporting for the first time the heights of NBE emissions from a tropical storm over the Malacca Strait, a narrow water passage between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra Island. A total of 49 positive NBEs (+NBEs) were detected from the storm. The NBE activity can be divided into two stages according to the emission heights and radar reflectivity data. The first stage (or S1) lasted for only 6 minutes, started with the first detected NBE, and produced 20 NBEs (41%). The emission heights ranged between 12.0 and 16.7 km. Radar reflectivity data showed that the storm reached maximum values at 55 dBZ within the period S1. In contrast, the second stage (S2) lasted longer (32 minutes) and produced 29 NBEs (59%). The emission heights were lower and ranged from 8.5 to 13.7 km. Radar reflectivity data showed that the storm reached maximum values at 50 dBZ within the period S2.

  • 16.
    Ahmad, M.R.
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Rashid, M.
    Aziz, M.H.A.
    Esa, M.R.M.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Dutkiewicz, E.
    Analysis of Lightning-induced Transient in 2.4 GHz Wireless Communication System2011In: Proceeding of IEEE International Conference on Space Science and Communication (IconSpace), Penang, Malaysia, pp225-230, 2011Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 17. Ahmad, Noor Azlinda
    et al.
    Baharudin, Zikri A
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Fernando, M.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Radiation field spectra of long-duration cloud flashes2015In: Atmospheric Science Letters, E-ISSN 1530-261X, Vol. 16, no 2, p. 91-95Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The preliminary results of radiation electric fields produced by long-duration cloud flashes have been Fourier analyzed to determine the frequency spectrum in the range of 10kHz-10MHz. The flashes were recorded within a distance of less than 20km. The spectrum was normalized to 50km distance and it shows a f(-1) dependence within the entire frequency range.

  • 18.
    Ahmad, Noor Azlinda
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Fernando, Mahendra
    Baharudin, Z. A.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Saleh, Ziad
    Dwyer, Joseph R.
    Rassoul, Hamid K.
    The first electric field pulse of cloud and cloud-to-ground lightning discharges2010In: Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, ISSN 1364-6826, E-ISSN 1879-1824, Vol. 72, no 2-3, p. 143-150Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this study, the first electric field pulse of cloud and cloud-to-ground discharges were analyzed and compared with other pulses of cloud discharges. Thirty eight cloud discharges and 101 cloud-to-ground discharges have been studied in this analysis. Pulses in cloud discharges were classified as [`]small', [`]medium' and [`]large', depending upon the value of their relative amplitude with respect to that of the average amplitude of the five largest pulses in the flash. We found that parameters, such as pulse duration, rise time, zero crossing time and full-width at half-maximum (FWHMs) of the first pulse of cloud and cloud-to-ground discharges are similar to small pulses that appear in the later stage of cloud discharges. Hence, we suggest that the mechanism of the first pulse of cloud and cloud-to-ground discharges and the mechanism of pulses at the later stage of cloud discharges could be the same.

  • 19.
    Ahmad, Noor Azlinda
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Fernando, Mahendra
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Baharudin, Zikri A.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Ahmad, H.
    Malek, Z. Abdul
    Characteristics of narrow bipolar pulses observed in Malaysia2010In: Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, ISSN 1364-6826, E-ISSN 1879-1824, Vol. 72, no 5-6, p. 534-540Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) are considered as isolated intracloud events with higher peak amplitude and strong high frequency emission compared to the first return strokes and other intracloud discharges. From 182 NBPs recorded in Malaysia in the tropic, 75 were narrow negative bipolar pulses (NNBPs) while 107 were narrow positive bipolar pulses (NPBPs). The mean duration of NNBPs was 24.6 +/- 17.1 mu s, while 30.2 +/- 12.3 mu s was observed for NPBPs. The mean full-width at half-maximum (FVVHM) was 2.2 +/- 0.7 and 2.4 +/- 1.4 mu s for NNBPs and NPBPs, respectively. The mean peak amplitude of NPBPs normalized to 100 km was 22.7 V/m, a factor of 1.3 higher than that of NNBPs which is 17.6 V/m. In contrast to the previous studies, it was observed that the electric field change was characterized by a bipolar pulse with a significant amount of fine structures separated by a few tens of nanoseconds intervals, embedded on it. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

  • 20.
    Ahmad, Noor Azlinda
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Fernando, Mahendra
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    ON THE DERIVATIVES OF NARROW BIPOLAR PULSES2010Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 21. Akyuz, Mose
    et al.
    Cortet, P.P.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Teknisk-naturvetenskapliga vetenskapsområdet, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences. Uppsala University, Teknisk-naturvetenskapliga vetenskapsområdet, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity. Avdelningen för elektricitetslära och åskforskning.
    Positive Streamer Discharges along Liquid Dielectric Surfaces: Effect of Dielectric Constant and Surface Properties2005In: IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 12, no 3, p. 579-585Article in journal (Refereed)
  • 22.
    Akyuz, Mose
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Larsson, Anders
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Franke, Axel
    Characteristics of Laser-triggered Electric Discharges in Air2005In: IEEE transactions on dielectrics and electrical insulation, ISSN 1070-9878, E-ISSN 1558-4135, Vol. 12, no 5, p. 1060-1070Article in journal (Refereed)
  • 23. Amarasinghe, Dulan
    et al.
    Sonnadara, Upul
    Berg, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Channel tortuosity of long laboratory sparks2007In: Journal of Electrostatics, ISSN 0304-3886, E-ISSN 1873-5738, Vol. 65, no 8, p. 521-526Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Channel tortuosity of 50 cm long laboratory sparks were measured by analyzing a set of images taken by three cameras. The cameras were placed at a radial distance of 200 cm from the spark gap. The angle between any two cameras was 120 degrees. The sparks were generated between a steel rod and. a plane electrode. The distribution of the direction change of the channel was found to be Gaussian with a standard deviation of 15.3 degrees. The average tortuosity of the channel defined as the mean absolute value of the direction change was 11.8 +/- 1.4 degrees, which is smaller than the average tortuosity of natural lightning and close to the tortuosity of triggered lightning. The average tortuosity is dependent on the segment length used in calculating the direction change. A gradual increase in the average tortuosity (0.08 degrees/cm) was seen when the sparks propagated towards the plane electrode.

  • 24. Amarasinghe, Dulan
    et al.
    Sonnadara, Upul
    Berg, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Division for Electricity and Lightning Research.
    Correlation between brightness and channel currents of electrical discharges2007In: IEEE transactions on dielectrics and electrical insulation, ISSN 1070-9878, E-ISSN 1558-4135, Vol. 14, no 5, p. 1154-1160Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Channel brightness of 500 mm long electrical discharges were measured by analyzing a set of digitized images taken by 3 cameras placed symmetrically around a discharge gap at a radial distance of 200 cm from the axis of the spark. The sparks were generated between a steel rod and a plane electrode. The distribution of the brightness across the channel represented a Gaussian distribution. A linear correlation was seen between the channel brightness measured by different cameras looking at the same spark channel. No correlation was seen between the channel brightness and the channel depth (direction perpendicular to the camera plane). The measured peak current and the brightness of the main spark channel show a high degree of correlation (R-2=0.97). The sum of brightness of branches was equal to the brightness of the parent channel. One can use this result to calculate the relative distribution of branch currents in complex electrical discharges including natural lightning flashes. If the current in the parent channel is known, branch currents can be calculated by measuring the optical intensities using photographic techniques.

  • 25. Amarasinghe, Dulan
    et al.
    Sonnadara, Upul
    Berg, Marcus
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Fractal dimension of long electrical discharges2015In: Journal of Electrostatics, ISSN 0304-3886, E-ISSN 1873-5738, Vol. 73, p. 33-37Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The fractal dimension of 500 mm long electrical discharges is presented by analyzing a set of photographic images. Three popular fractal dimension estimation techniques, box counting, sandbox and correlation function methods were used to estimate the fractal dimension of the discharge channels. To remove the apparent thickness due to varying magnitudes of current in the discharge channels, edge detection algorithms were utilized. The estimated fractal dimensions for box counting, sandbox and correlation function for long laboratory sparks were 1.20 +/- 0.06,1.66 +/- 0.05 and 1.52 +/- 0.12 respectively. Within statistical uncertainties, the estimated fractal dimensions of positive and negative polarities agreed very well. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

  • 26. Arevalo, L.
    et al.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Corona charge produced by thundercloud fields in grounded rods2012In: 31st International Conference on Lightning Protection ICLP 2012, 2012, p. 6344365-Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Electrostatic fields below the thundercloud lead to the formation of glow charge from grounded objects. The charge accumulated after certain time can initiate or inhibit the called streamer formation and consequently the inception and development of upward leaders. By means of a two dimensional numerical model that takes into account the particles behavior is observed that glow charge can smooth the electric field on top of the grounded rod and consequently hinder the inception of streamers and upward leaders from the grounded rod. It is concluded that to be able to initiate unstable upward leaders from the shielded grounded rod a sudden change of electric field is necessary. A two dimensional numerical model that solves the continuity equations for positive and negative ions and electrons coupled with Poisson equation was implemented. Comparison for different magnitudes of electric field and characteristics of rod are included as well.

  • 27.
    Arevalo, L.
    et al.
    ABB Power Syst HVDC, R&D Dept, Ludvika, Sweden..
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    The mesh method in lightning protection analyzed from a lightning attachment model2016In: 2016 33RD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIGHTNING PROTECTION (ICLP), 2016Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Based on the well-known rolling sphere method, international standards recommend the location of the external lightning protection system of structures. The design of the external lightning protection system of structures of height of less than 60 m can be done by installing a mesh on top of a roof of the structure or by creating a mesh with wires at certain distance from the roof of the structure. The prospective downward leader current that the mesh can incept depends on the size of the mesh and the current magnitude is given as recommendation in the international standards. This paper analyses the relation prospective negative downward leader current vs. mesh size from a lightning attachment model. The model is applied to a perfectly grounded structure with maximum height of 50 m protected by two different external lightning protection systems recommended by the international standards. The results showed difference on magnitude of the prospective downward leader current the standards recommend and the ones obtained using the lightning attachment model for meshes of shorter size. Discrepancies concerning the minimum downward leader current that can be incepted by a mesh made by wires located at certain distance from the ground structure and a mesh located on top of the building are obtained.

  • 28.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    A RELIABLE NUMERICAL METHOD FOR THE CALCULATION OF BREAKDOWN VOLTAGES2010Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 29.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Influence of multiple upward connecting leaders initiated from the same structure on the lightning attachment process2009Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 30.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    LABORATORY LONG GAPS SIMULATION CONSIDERING A VARIABLE CORONA REGION2010Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 31.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    On the interception of lightning flashes by power transmission lines2011In: Journal of Electrostatics, ISSN 0304-3886, E-ISSN 1873-5738, Vol. 69, no 3, p. 220-227Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The design of the lightning protection system LPS of transmission lines is based on the well knownelectro-geometrical model. The electro-geometrical model assumes that the first point on a powertransmission line that will come within striking distance of the tip of a down-coming stepped leaderchannel is the strike point of the lightning flash. The model neglects almost all of the physics associatedwith the lightning attachment.Nowadays, as it is possible to use modern hardware and software tools and several different numericalmethods, it is feasible to apply the physics of the discharge process to the study of lightning attachment.Such models take into account the movement of the downward and the resulting upward leaders fromdifferent points on the structures under consideration.In this paper, a procedure based on lightning physics was used to analyze the lightning attachmentphenomena in EHV transmission lines of 230 kV and 500 kV and the results were compared with thepredictions of the electro-geometrical method.

  • 32.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Preliminary study on the modelling of negative leader discharges2011In: Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, ISSN 0022-3727, E-ISSN 1361-6463, Vol. 44, no 31, p. 315204-Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Nowadays, there is considerable interest in understanding the physics underlying positive and negative discharges because of the importance of improving lightning protection systems and of coordinating the insulation for high voltages. Numerical simulations of positive switching impulses made in long spark gaps in a laboratory are achievable because the physics of the process is reasonably well understood and because of the availability of powerful computational methods. However, the existing work on the simulation of negative switching discharges has been held up by a lack of experimental data and the absence of a full understanding of the physics involved. In the scientific community, it is well known that most of the lightning discharges that occur in nature are of negative polarity, and because of their complexity, the only way to understand them is to generate the discharges in laboratories under controlled conditions. The voltage impulse waveshape used in laboratories is a negative switching impulse. With the aim of applying the available information to a self-consistent physical method, an electrostatic approximation of the negative leader discharge process is presented here. The simulation procedure takes into consideration the physics of positive and negative discharges, considering that the negative leader propagates towards a grounded electrode and the positive leader towards a rod electrode. The simulation considers the leader channel to be thermodynamic, and assumes that the conditions required to generate a thermal channel are the same for positive and negative leaders. However, the magnitude of the electrical charge necessary to reproduce their propagation and thermalization is different, and both values are based on experimental data. The positive and negative streamer development is based on the constant electric field characteristics of these discharges, as found during experimental measurements made by different authors. As a computational tool, a finite element method based software is employed. The simulations are compared with experimental data available in the literature.

  • 33.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Reliable model for the calculation of negative leader discharges under switching impulses2010Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 34. Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Streamer to leader transition criteria for propagation of long sparks and lightning leaders2014In: 2014 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIGHTNING PROTECTION (ICLP), IEEE conference proceedings, 2014, p. 480-483Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Certain models have been dedicated to analyze the breakdown of long spark gaps and the lightning attachment process based on the mechanism of leader propagation. One of the most important processes on the mechanism of leader is the transition between streamers to leader. The streamer to leader transition is characterized by a rapid increase in the electron density and gas temperature, which is a consequence of the onset of thermal-ionization instability. To simplify the complexity of the physical process lightning attachment and long spark gaps models assumed that a minimum charge of 1 mu C is necessary to thermalize a leader channel, independently of the electric field and atmospheric conditions as temperature, pressure and humidity. In this paper an approach that takes into account the continuity equations and the gas temperature balance equation is used to investigate the minimum charge required to start the streamer to leader transition. The obtained results are compared with the minimum charge criteria used for long spark gaps and lightning attachment modeling. Simulation shows that the required charge to thermalize a leader depends on the vibrational energy relaxation. Results also indicate that only a small part of the energy input, transferred by electrons to gas molecules in the stem, contributes immediately to the temperature rise.

  • 35.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    'The mesh method' in lightning protection standards - Revisited2010In: Journal of Electrostatics, ISSN 0304-3886, E-ISSN 1873-5738, Vol. 68, no 4, p. 311-314Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    At present the design of the Lightning protection systems (LPS) for structures as stipulated in standards is based on the electro - geometrical method, which was initially used to protect power lines from lightning. A derivative of the electro-geometrical method is the rolling sphere method. This method together, with the protection angle method and mesh method are used almost in all lightning standards as the measure in installing the lightning protection systems of grounded structures. In the mesh method, the dimension of the cell size in different levels of protection is determined using the rolling sphere method. Since the rolling sphere method does not take into account the physics of the lightning attachment process there is a need to evaluate the validity of the stipulated value in standards of the minimum lightning current that can penetrate through the mesh in different levels of protection. In this paper, meshes of different sizes as stipulated in the lightning protection standards were tested for their ability to intercept lightning flashes using a lightning attachment model that takes into account the physics of connecting leaders on. The results are in reasonable agreement with the specifications given in the lightning protection standards.

  • 36.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity. Ludvika ULHC, ABB Power Grids Grid Integrat HVDC, Dept Res & Dev, Lyviksvagen 3, S-77180 Lyviksvagen, Sweden..
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Unstable Leader Inception Criteria of Atmospheric Discharges2017In: Atmosphere, ISSN 2073-4433, E-ISSN 2073-4433, Vol. 8, no 9, article id 156Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In the literature, there are different criteria to represent the formation of a leader channel in short and long gap discharges. Due to the complexity of the physics of the heating phenomena, and the limitations of the computational resources, a simplified criterion for the minimum amount of electrical charge required to incept an unstable leader has recently been used for modeling long gap discharges and lightning attachments. The criterion is based on the assumption that the total energy of the streamer is used to heat up the gas, among other principles. However, from a physics point of view, energy can also be transferred to other molecular processes, such as rotation, translation, and vibrational excitation. In this paper, the leader inception mechanism was studied based on fundamental particle physics and the energy balance of the gas media. The heating process of the plasma is evaluated with a detailed two-dimensional self-consistent model. The model is able to represent the streamer propagation, dark period, and unsuccessful leaders that may occur prior to the heating of the channel. The main processes that participate in heating the gas are identified within the model, indicating that impact ionization and detachment are the leading sources of energy injection, and that recombination is responsible for loss of electrons and limiting the energy. The model was applied to a well-known experiment for long air gaps under positive switching impulses reported in the literature, and used to validate models for lightning attachments and long gap discharges. Results indicate that the streamer-leader transition depends on the amount of energy transferred to the heating process. The minimum electric charge required for leader inception varies with the gap geometry, the background electric field, the reduction of electric field due to the space charge, the energy expended on the vibrational relation, and the environmental conditions, among others.

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  • 37. Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Upward leader inception caused by a sudden change of cloud electric field2014In: 2014 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIGHTNING PROTECTION (ICLP), IEEE conference proceedings, 2014, p. 484-487Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Discharge processes such as glow, streamer, and leader inception among others take place before an upward leader can be launched from a grounded structure during thunderstorms. Electrostatic fields below the thundercloud could lead to the formation of glow charge from grounded objects. If the electric field is high enough and ionization keeps expanding into the gap, streamers can be incepted. Depending on the available charge and the thermodynamic properties of the gas, there is a possibility to incept or not a positive upward leader towards the cloud. Usually, the inception of positive upward leaders is directly related with the appearance of a downward coming leader from cloud towards the grounded object. Such a downward leader will intensify the electric field in such a way that the streamer discharges could thermalize and produce an unstable upward leader channel. However, experimental observations have indicated the inception of upward leaders from grounded structures without registering connecting downward leaders towards the structure. The present paper intends to explain the inception of positive upward leaders from the top of a rod, whenever the electric field produced by the cloud suddenly changes e.g. due to intra-cloud discharges or distance cloud to ground flash. A two dimensional model based on the gas-dynamic equations, the main processes responsible for gas heating such as vibrational excitation and transfer of energy into electronic, rotational and translational excitation, coupled with Poisson equation is presented in this paper. Rods of different lengths under thundercloud electric field were studied. Simulation results indicate that positive upward leaders can be incepted from long rods under certain conditions of thundercloud electric field without the need of a coming downward leader. However, for rods of tenths of meters the thundercloud electric field is not enough to incept positive upward leaders and an intensification of the electric field is required in order to incept a positive upward leader from the structure, e.g., a coming downward leader.

  • 38.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Montano, Raul
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Breakdown times and voltages probability calculation using a simplified numerical methodology2008Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 39.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Montano, Raul
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Numerical simulation of long laboratory sparks generated by positive switching impulses2009In: Journal of Electrostatics, ISSN 0304-3886, E-ISSN 1873-5738, Vol. 67, no 2-3, p. 228-234Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    A numerical methodology using two different leader channel criteria has been implemented. The methodology is based on Bondiou and Gallimberti's proposition [A. Bondiou, I. Gallimberti, Theoretical modelling of the development of the positive spark in long spark, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 27 (1994) 1252-1266]. The leader channel criteria used are Rizk engineering criterion [Rizk, A model for switching impulse leader inception and breakdown of long air gaps, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 4(1) (1989)] and Local thermodynamic - L.T.E. - physical concept [I. Gallimberti, The mechanism of the long spark formation, Colloque C7, J. Phys. (supplement au nro 7, Tome 40) (July 1979) C7-193]. The methodology was tested in three different cases; a deterministic case, a statistical variation and a typical constant level test. Deterministic calculation considered corona inception using stabilization corona electric field criterion of Gallimberti [I. Gallimberti, The mechanism of the long spark formation, Colloque C7, J. Phys. (supplement au nro 7, Tome 40) (July 1979) C7-193] and the leader moving as segments. The statistical simulation has two different statistical delays, one at inception and the other due to the tortuous characteristics of the leader channel. The constant level test consists of 200 positive switching impulses with the same characteristics such as maximum applied voltage, time to crest and time to fall. Time to breakdown and breakdown voltage were found based on the results obtained from the constant level test characteristics. All the numerical results presented are based on experimental conditions reported in [Les Renardières Group, Research on long gap discharges at Les Renardières, Electra N 35 (1973)] from the world class research group namely Les Renardieres Group.

  • 40.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Montano, Raul
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Roman, Franscisco
    Breakdown effect on long gaps under switching impulses statistical variation2008Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 41.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Wu, Dong
    ABB AB, Power systems HVDC, Ludvika.
    Jacobson, Björn
    ABB AB, Power Systems HVDC, Ludvika.
    A new static calculation of the streamer region for long spark gaps2012In: Journal of Electrostatics, ISSN 0304-3886, E-ISSN 1873-5738, Vol. 70, no 1, p. 15-19Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Different electrostatic approximations have been proposed to calculate the streamer region without going in deep details of the behavior of density of particles under the effect of high electric fields; this kind of approximations have been used in numerical calculations of long spark gaps and lightning attachment. The simplifications of the streamer region are achieved by considering it to be a geometrical region with a constant geometrical shape. Different geometrical shapes have been used, such as cones or several parallel filaments. Afterward, to simplify the procedures, the streamer region was approximated by two constants, one denoted K-Q, called the geometrical constant and in other cases K named as geometrical factor. However, when a voltage that varies with time is applied to an arrangement of electrodes (high voltage and grounded electrodes), the background electric field will change with time. Thus, if the background electric field is modified, the streamer zone could cover a larger or smaller area. With the aim of reducing the number of assumptions required in the calculation of long gap discharges, a new electrostatic model to calculate the streamer region is presented. This model considers a variable streamer zone that changes with the electric field variations. The three-dimensional region that fulfills the minimum electric field to sustain a streamer is identified for each time step, and the charge accumulated in that region is then calculated. The only parameter that is being used in the calculation is the minimum electric field necessary for the propagation of streamers.

  • 42.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    ABB Power Grids HVDC, Res & Dev, Ludvika, Sweden..
    Lobato, André
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Hettiarachchi, Pasan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Attachment process of the discharge of competing grounded electrodes - Experimental observations and modeling2021In: 2021 35th International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP) and XVI International Symposium On Lightning Protection (SIPDA), IEEE, 2021Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The lightning attachment discharge process theory is based on studies of the physics of the discharge obtained from high voltage laboratory tests. The process of propagation of positive and negative discharges has been studied independently and then the gathered information has been used to understand and explain the lightning attachment development. In this paper, an experimental set-up is built to describe the dynamic behavior of positive and negative discharges. Electrodes of different dimensions placed at different distances are used as grounded electrodes and a high voltage electrode is subject to negative switching impulses. Test results allow to identify different stages of the dynamic process of attachment of the discharge between a downward negative discharge and a positive upward leader discharge. The principles of physics of discharge for positive and negative polarities are used to model the laboratory test measurements. The model can reproduce in an accurate manner majority of the dynamic processes of the discharge. In addition, statistical results of the effect of nearby and competing upward discharges is obtained.

  • 43.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Montano, Raul
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Modelling of Positive Discharges in Laboratory Gaps under Switching impulses2008Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 44.
    Arevalo, Liliana
    et al.
    HVDC, Res & Dev, ABB Power Grids, Ludvika, Sweden.
    Wu, Dong
    HVDC, Res & Dev, ABB Power Grids, Ludvika, Sweden.
    Hettiarachchi, Pasan
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Lobato, André
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Rahman, Mahbubur
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Wooi, Chin-Leong
    Univ Malaysia Perlis, Sch Elect Syst Engn, Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia.
    The leader propagation velocity in long air gaps2018In: 2018 34th international conference on lightning protection (ICLP 2018), IEEE, 2018Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Experimental measurements of long gap discharges and its interpretation are the base of engineering equations and complex models to design clearance distances, lightning protection systems, among others. Parameters like leader propagation velocity, average electric field of the leader channel, stability electric field of the streamer region, etc. are derived from experimental measurements for rod-plane arrangements. However, in high voltage engineering geometries are not only rod-plane arrangements but also rounded electrode geometries. Experimental measurements of sphere - plane arrangements are presented in this paper. Attention is given to the velocity of propagation of the leader. The velocity of propagation of the leader is compared for two different applied voltage conditions, such as overvoltage and non-overvoltage. Experimental observations indicate that the velocity of the leader does not have a linear relationship with the increment of the applied voltage, as described by other authors for rod-plane arrangements. By means of a model based on the physics of the discharge, it is observed that the velocity of propagation of the leader depends on the injected charge to the leader channel. The injected charge depends on the background electric field, the potential at the leader tip, the steepness of the applied voltage waveform, among other parameters.

  • 45.
    Baharin, S. A. S.
    et al.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Ahmad, M. R.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Periannan, D.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Sabri, M. H. M.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Seah, B. Y.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Aziz, M. Z. A. A.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Ismail, M. M.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka UTeM, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fa Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia.
    Esa, M. R. M.
    Univ Teknol Malaysia, FKE, Inst High Voltage & High Current IVAT, Johor Baharu 81310, Johor, Malaysia.
    Mohammad, S. A.
    Univ Teknol Malaysia, FKE, Inst High Voltage & High Current IVAT, Johor Baharu 81310, Johor, Malaysia.
    Abdul-Malek, Z.
    Univ Teknol Malaysia, FKE, Inst High Voltage & High Current IVAT, Johor Baharu 81310, Johor, Malaysia.
    Yusop, N.
    Univ Kebangsaan Malaysia, Inst Climate Change, Space Sci Ctr ANGKASA, Bangi 43600, Selangor Darul, Malaysia.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Lu, G.
    Chinese Acad Sci, Inst Atmospher Phys, Key Lab Middle Atmosphere & Global Environm Obser, Beijing, Peoples R China.
    Wavelet Analysis of the Onset of VHF and Microwave Radiation Emitted by Lightning2018In: 2018 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE (ICECOS), IEEE , 2018, p. 297-300Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Lightning flash is an electrical discharge in air (dielectric breakdown) which emits electromagnetic (FM) fields across very wide spectra from a few Hertz up to visible wavelength. Electrical breakdown process is an important event that initiates lightning. For electrical breakdown process to occur, it must fulfill two conditions which are at least has one free electron and the electric field region is more than 3 MV/m. This process starts with electron avalanche in millimeter scale then grows into streamer in centimeter scale. Lastly, from streamer it will grow into leader in meter scale. It has already established that streamer emits intensely at Very High Frequency (VHF) band as it's already proven both theoretically and experimentally. A study by Cooray, theoretically proved that emission of electron avalanche peaks at microwave band. Air-gap parallel plate antenna which could operate at 1 GHz with remote sensing is designed and simulated to measure the microwave radiation emitted by lightning. Both temporal and wavelet analyses are used to compare the onset of microwave radiation and VHF radiation in both time and frequency domains to determine electron avalanche appears at which electromagnetic band.

  • 46.
    Baharin, Shamsul Ammar Shamsul
    et al.
    Univ Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Technol Disaster Risk Reduct CDR, Fak Teknol & Kejuruteraan Elekt & Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia..
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    Univ Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Technol Disaster Risk Reduct CDR, Fak Teknol & Kejuruteraan Elekt & Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia..
    Akbar, Muhammad A'mmar Jamal
    Adv Micro Devices AMDs, Bayan Lepas 11900, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia..
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Electromagnetic Interference From Natural Lightning on 4G Communication Links2024In: IEEE Access, E-ISSN 2169-3536, Vol. 12, p. 14870-14881Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this study, microwave radiation pulses emitted from natural lightning have been found to interfere with the Fourth Generation Long Term Evolution (4G LTE) mobile communication data transmission. Two sets of measurement instruments have been synchronized where lightning electric field sensor together with 4G LTE network were evaluated its performance under two conditions namely fair-weather (four cases) and storm (four lightning cases). The microwave radiation emitted from lightning was directly measured without the use of a mixer and down-convertor to ensure the preservation of information such as the number of pulses and amplitude. A client-server architecture has been set up for data transmission utilizing User Datagram Protocol (UDP) where the packets have been generated by using Internet Performance Working Group Third Version (Iperf3) platform. Under fair-weather conditions, the 4G LTE connection at both the client and server nodes demonstrated stability and experienced minimal impact. On the other hand, natural lightning electromagnetic interference disrupted the 4G LTE communication links. Among the four reported storms, three storms have affected the 4G LTE data transmission. The first and fourth storms resulted in a complete connection drop to zero, lasting for 4 minutes and 2 seconds and for 44 seconds, respectively. The observation of hundreds microwave radiation pulses, each characterized by individual oscillating features suggests a potential disruption to packet transmission. Moreover, negative could-to-ground (-CG) and intra-cloud (IC) lightning flashes have been identified as the primary sources of interference to the 4G LTE data transmission. This information could be useful for future studies and for developers working on improving the reliability and performance of 4G LTE networks, particularly in areas prone to thunderstorms.

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  • 47.
    Baharin, Shamsul Ammar Shamsul
    et al.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Malaysia..
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Malaysia..
    Al-Shaikhli, Taha Raad Khaleel
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Malaysia..
    Sabri, Muhammad Haziq Mohammad
    Univ Tenaga Nas, Inst Power Engn, Coll Engn, Jalan IKRAM UNITEN, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia..
    Al-Kahtani, Ammar Ahmed
    Univ Tenaga Nas, Inst Power Engn, Coll Engn, Jalan IKRAM UNITEN, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia..
    Mohamad, Sulaiman Ali
    Univ Kebangsaan Malaysia, Inst Climate Change, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia..
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Sidik, Muhammad Abu Bakar
    Univ Sriwijaya UNSRI, Dept Elect Engn, Sumatera Selatan 30662, Indonesia..
    Microwave and Very High Frequency Radiations of The First Narrow Initial Breakdown2021In: 2021 35TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIGHTNING PROTECTION (ICLP) AND XVI INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON LIGHTNING PROTECTION (SIPDA), IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2021Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This paper reports the observation of microwave and very high frequency (VHF) radiation pulses associated with the first narrow (<10us) initial breakdown (IB) pulses of ten negative cloud-to-ground (-CG) flashes. The centre frequency of microwave and VHF sensors was 0.97 GHz and 60 MHz, respectively. We found that all microwave pulses were the initiation event led the first VHF pulses ranging between 0.03187 and 2.57968 mu s and led the first narrow IB pulses ranging between 0.02382 and 2.70202 mu s. Half of the VHF pulses were observed to lead the first narrow IB pulses ranging between 0.03453 and 0.128 mu s. Moreover, polarity of microwave radiation pulses was always positive while the polarity of the first narrow IB pulses always negative. On the other hand, half of VHF radiation pulses had the same polarity as microwave radiation pulses.

  • 48.
    Baharin, Shamsul Ammar Shamsul
    et al.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia..
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher & Lightning Res Lab, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt & Kejuruteraan Komputer, Durian Tunggal 76100, Melaka, Malaysia..
    Al-Shaikhli, Taha Raad Khaleel
    Al Nisour Univ Coll, Dept Comp Tech Engn, Baghdad, Iraq..
    Sidik, Muhammad Abu Bakar
    Univ Sriwijaya UNSRI, Dept Elect Engn, Sumatera Selatan 30662, Indonesia..
    Sabri, Muhammad Haziq Mohammad
    Univ Tenaga Nasl UNITEN, Inst Power Engn, Jalan IKRAM UNITEN, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia..
    Al-Kahtani, Ammar Ahmed Nasser
    Univ Tenaga Nasl UNITEN, Inst Power Engn, Jalan IKRAM UNITEN, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia..
    Mohammad, Sulaiman Ali
    Univ Kebangsaan Malaysia, Inst Climate Change, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia..
    Lu, Gaopeng
    Chinese Acad Sci, Inst Atmospher Phys, Key Lab Middle Atmosphere & Global Environm Obser, Beijing 100029, Peoples R China..
    Zhang, Hongbo
    Chinese Acad Sci, Inst Atmospher Phys, Key Lab Middle Atmosphere & Global Environm Obser, Beijing 100029, Peoples R China..
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Microwave radiation associated with stepped leaders of negative cloud-to-ground flashes2022In: Atmospheric research, ISSN 0169-8095, E-ISSN 1873-2895, Vol. 270, article id 106091Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this paper, Very-High Frequency (VHF) and microwave radiation pulses associated with stepped leader pulses (conventional breakdown) are examined. A total of 100 stepped leader pulses (SLPs) with the associated 100 quiet periods (QPs) from ten negative cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes within the reversal distance (<8 km) have been analyzed. The QP is defined as the period between two SLPs when no electrical activity within the fast antenna sensor bandwidth was detected. The measurement system is made up of fast antenna (FA) and slow antenna (SA) sensors, a VHF sensor (60 MHz center frequency with 40 MHz bandwidth), and a microwave sensor (0.97 GHz center frequency with 20 MHz bandwidth). The waveforms were sampled at 2.5 GHz (400 ps). The total durations of the SLPs and QPs were 2.648 +/- 1.152 mu s and 2.708 +/- 1.670 mu s, respectively. All microwave and VHF radiation waveforms have been detected as clear individual oscillating pulses. The key finding is that the microwave radiation can be classified into three categories based on the total number of detected individual oscillating pulses during the QP. Two microwave pulses detected during the QP (Category 1) are suggested to be associated with the electron avalanche/corona process at the tip of an existing negative leader and a space stem. The VHF pulses associated with the microwave pulses are suggested to be emitted by propagating streamers. On the other hand, a single microwave pulse detected during the QP (Category 2) is suggested to be emitted by the electron avalanche/corona process of a space stem. The VHF pulses associated with the microwave pulse are suggested to be emitted by propagating streamers. In both categories, 70% of the microwave radiation pulses have been observed to precede VHF radiation pulses with an average lead time of 0.848 +/- 1.336 mu s. The head-on collision of a downward propagating negative streamer and an upward propagating positive streamer (from space stem) emitted significant microwave radiation. A new negative leader was formed when the head-on collision took place. The microwave radiation pulses emitted by the head-on collision process were observed to precede SLPs with an average lead time of 0.423 +/- 0.378 mu s. Around 80% of the microwave radiation pulses preceded VHF radiation pulses with average lead time of 0.540 +/- 0.596 mu s. Therefore, microwave and VHF radiation pulses are suggested to be emitted by different processes of the electrical breakdown mechanism. The microwave radiation is emitted by electron avalanche/corona/head-on collision while the VHF radiation is emitted by propagating streamers.

  • 49.
    Baharin, Shamsul Ammar Shamsul
    et al.
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher Sci & Disaster Management Res Grp ThorRG, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt Kejuruteraan Komputer, Melaka 76100, Malaysia..
    Ahmad, Mohd Riduan
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher Sci & Disaster Management Res Grp ThorRG, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt Kejuruteraan Komputer, Melaka 76100, Malaysia..
    Sabri, Muhammad Haziq Mohammad
    Univ Tenaga Nas, Inst Power Engn IPE, Jalan IKRAM UNITEN, Kajang Selangor 43000, Malaysia..
    Alammari, Ammar
    Univ Tekn Malaysia Melaka, Ctr Telecommun Res & Innovat CeTRI, Atmospher Sci & Disaster Management Res Grp ThorRG, Fak Kejuruteraan Elekt Kejuruteraan Komputer, Melaka 76100, Malaysia..
    Al-Kahtani, Ammar Ahmed Nasser
    Univ Tenaga Nas, Inst Sustainable Energy ISE, Jalan IKRAM UNITEN, Kajang Selangor 43000, Malaysia..
    Lu, Gaopeng
    Chinese Acad Sci, Inst Atmospher Phys, Key Lab Middle Atmosphere & Global Environm Observ, Beijing 100029, Peoples R China..
    Kawasaki, Zen
    Osaka Univ, Grad Sch Engn, 1 1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 5650871, Japan..
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Electricity.
    Microwave radiation associated with positive narrow bipolar events2023In: Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, ISSN 1364-6826, E-ISSN 1879-1824, Vol. 242, article id 105998Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this paper, we examined seven isolated positive Narrow Bipolar Events (NBEs), one positive NBE that initiated an IC flash progressed to a single-stroke Cloud-to-Ground (CG) flash, and one positive NBE that initiated an IC flash. Seven NBEs have been accompanied by significant Very-High Frequency (VHF) and microwave radiation pulses. We recorded all NBEs from two measurement stations (ST1 and ST2) separated at 13.3 km apart which consisted of fast antenna (FA) and slow antenna (SA) sensors, a magnetic field (B-field) sensor, a VHF sensor (60 MHz), and a microwave sensor (0.97 GHz). The waveforms were sampled at 2.5 GHz (400 ps). The key finding is that all microwave radiation pulses have been found to precede both the VHF radiation pulses and NBEs with average lead time of 63 +/- 39 ns and 122 +/- 143 ns, respectively. In comparison to stepped leader pulses or SLPs (conventional breakdown), the average lead time of microwave to VHF for NBEs (fast breakdown) was 88% faster compared to the average lead time of microwave to VHF for SLPs. Moreover, the average lead time of VHF to NBEs was 56% faster when compared to the average lead time of VHF to SLPs. The VHF interferometer map for an isolated NBE (NBE6) showed upward propagation of VHF radiation sources (fast negative breakdown) with initiation altitude, total length of the VHF radiation sources propagation, and estimated velocity were 10.2 +/- 0.3 km, 2.9 +/- 0.6 km, and 1.8 x 108 and 2.8 x 108 ms-1, respectively. On the other hand, interferometer map for an NBE that initiated a single-stroke CG (NBE3) showed bidirectional fast streamers propagation with initiation altitude, total length of the VHF radiation sources propagation, and estimated velocity were 14.0 +/- 0.4 km, 2.9 +/- 0.82 km, and 1.6 x 108 and 2.8 x 108 ms-1, respectively. Clearly, the microwave and VHF radiation pulses associated with positive NBEs have been emitted by different processes of fast breakdown mechanism. Therefore, it can be suggested that the microwave radiation is emitted by electron avalanches/corona while the VHF ra-diation is emitted by fast propagating streamers.

  • 50.
    Baharudin, Zikri A.
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Ahmad, Noor Azlinda
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Fernando, M.
    Cooray, Vernon
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Science and Technology, Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences, Electricity.
    Makela, J. S.
    Comparative study on preliminary breakdown pulse trains observed in Johor, Malaysia and Florida, USA2012In: Atmospheric research, ISSN 0169-8095, E-ISSN 1873-2895, Vol. 117, p. 111-121Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In this paper, the preliminary breakdown (PB) pulse train preceding the negative first return stroke (RS) is recorded using a broad band antenna system. These analyses were carried out in Johor Bahru, Malaysia and Florida, United States. This is a novel initiative at examining and identifying the characteristics of the PB pulse trains in the negative cloud-to-ground flashes observed in Malaysia. The arithmetic mean of the total pulse train duration is 12.3 ms and the weighted arithmetic mean of the pulse durations and interpulse intervals are 11 mu s and 152 mu s, respectively. The arithmetic mean ratio between the maximum peak amplitude of the PB pulse and the peak RS electric field was 27.8%, and the corresponding value in Florida was 29.4%. The arithmetic mean of the time duration between the most active part of the pulse train, and the RS was 57.6 ms in Malaysia and 22 ms in Florida. A qualitative comparison of our results with those obtained earlier in Sri Lanka. Sweden and Finland supports the hypothesis that the PBP/RS ratio is higher in the northern regions compared to the tropical regions. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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