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Background:

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) research has relied on mouse models overexpressing human mutant A βPP; however, newer generation knock-in models allow for physiological expression of amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP) containing familial AD mutations where murine AβPP is edited with a humanized amyloid-β (Aβ) sequence. The App^NL-F mouse model has shown substantial similarities to AD brains developing late onset cognitive impairment.

Objective:

In this study, we aimed to characterize mature primary cortical neurons derived from homozygous App^NL-F embryos, especially to identify early mitochondrial alterations in this model.

Methods:

Primary cultures of App^NL-F neurons kept in culture for 12–15 days were used to measure Aβ levels, secretase activity, mitochondrial functions, mitochondrial-ER contacts, synaptic function, and cell death.

Results:

We detected higher levels of Aβ₄₂ released from App^NL-F neurons as compared to wild-type neurons. App^NL-F neurons, also displayed an increased Aβ₄₂/Aβ₄₀ ratio, similar to adult App^NL-F mouse brain. Interestingly, we found an upregulation in mitochondrial oxygen consumption with concomitant downregulation in glycolytic reserve. Furthermore, App^NL-F neurons were more susceptible to cell death triggered by mitochondrial electron transport chain inhibition. Juxtaposition between ER and mitochondria was found to be substantially upregulated, which may account for upregulated mitochondrial-derived ATP production. However, anterograde mitochondrial movement was severely impaired in this model along with loss in synaptic vesicle protein and impairment in pre- and post-synaptic function.

Conclusion:

We show that widespread mitochondrial alterations can be detected in App^NL-F neurons in vitro, where amyloid plaque deposition does not occur, suggesting soluble and oligomeric Aβ-species being responsible for these alterations.

Background

Astrocytes are crucial for maintaining brain homeostasis and synaptic function, but are also tightly connected to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Our previous data demonstrate that astrocytes ingest large amounts of aggregated amyloid-beta (Aβ), but then store, rather than degrade the ingested material, which leads to severe cellular stress. However, the involvement of pathological astrocytes in AD-related synaptic dysfunction remains to be elucidated.

Methods

In this study, we aimed to investigate how intracellular deposits of Aβ in astrocytes affect their interplay with neurons, focusing on neuronal function and viability. For this purpose, human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived astrocytes were exposed to sonicated Αβ42 fibrils. The direct and indirect effects of the Αβ-exposed astrocytes on hiPSC-derived neurons were analyzed by performing astrocyte–neuron co-cultures as well as additions of conditioned media or extracellular vesicles to pure neuronal cultures.

Results

Electrophysiological recordings revealed significantly decreased frequency of excitatory post-synaptic currents in neurons co-cultured with Aβ-exposed astrocytes, while conditioned media from Aβ-exposed astrocytes had the opposite effect and resulted in hyperactivation of the synapses. Clearly, factors secreted from control, but not from Aβ-exposed astrocytes, benefited the wellbeing of neuronal cultures. Moreover, reactive astrocytes with Aβ deposits led to an elevated clearance of dead cells in the co-cultures.

Conclusions

Taken together, our results demonstrate that inclusions of aggregated Aβ affect the reactive state of the astrocytes, as well as their ability to support neuronal function.

Tau deposits in astrocytes are frequently found in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Since astrocytes do not express tau, the inclusions have been suggested to be of neuronal origin. However, the mechanisms behind their appearance and their relevance for disease progression remain unknown. Here we demonstrate, using a battery of experimental techniques that human astrocytes serve as an intermediator, promoting cell-to-cell spreading of pathological tau. Human astrocytes engulf and process, but fail to fully degrade dead neurons with tau pathology, as well as synthetic tau fibrils and tau aggregates isolated from AD brain tissue. Instead, the pathogenic tau is spread to nearby cells via secretion and tunneling nanotube mediated transfer. By performing co-culture experiments we could show that tau-containing astrocytes induce tau pathology in healthy human neurons directly. Furthermore, our results from a FRET based seeding assay, demonstrated that the tau proteoforms secreted by astrocytes have an exceptional seeding capacity, compared to the original tau species engulfed by the cells. Taken together, our study establishes a central role for astrocytes in mediating tau pathology, which could be of relevance for identifying novel treatment targets for AD and other tauopathies.

Background:

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease. Unfortunately, efficient and affordable treatments are still lacking for this neurodegenerative disorder, it is therefore urgent to identify new pharmacological targets. Astrocytes are playing a crucial role in the tuning of synaptic transmission and several studies have pointed out severe astrocyte reactivity in AD. Reactive astrocytes show altered physiology and function, suggesting they could have a role in the early pathophysiology of AD.

Objective:

We aimed to characterize early synaptic impairments in the App^NL-F knock-in mouse model of AD, especially to understand the contribution of astrocytes to early brain dysfunctions.

Methods:

The App^NL-F mouse model carries two disease-causing mutations inserted in the amyloid precursor protein gene. This strain does not start to develop amyloid-β plaques until 9 months of age. Thanks to electrophysiology, we investigated synaptic function, at both neuronal and astrocytic levels, in 6-month-old animals and correlate the synaptic activity with emotional behavior.

Results:

Electrophysiological recordings in the hippocampus revealed an overall synaptic mistuning at a pre-plaque stage of the pathology, associated to an intact social memory but a stronger depressive-like behavior. Astrocytes displayed a reactive-like morphology and a higher tonic GABA current compared to control mice. Interestingly, we here show that the synaptic impairments in hippocampal slices are partially corrected by a pre-treatment with the monoamine oxidase B blocker deprenyl or the fast-acting antidepressant ketamine (5 mg/kg).

Conclusions:

We propose that reactive astrocytes can induce synaptic mistuning early in AD, before plaques deposition, and that these changes are associated with emotional symptoms.

Background: Astrocytes play a central role in maintaining brain energy metabolism, but are also tightly connected to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our previous studies demonstrate that inflammatory astrocytes accumulate large amounts of aggregated amyloid-beta (A beta). However, in which way these A beta deposits influence their energy production remain unclear.

Methods: The aim of the present study was to investigate how A beta pathology in astrocytes affects their mitochondria functionality and overall energy metabolism. For this purpose, human induced pluripotent cell (hiPSC)-derived astrocytes were exposed to sonicated A beta(42) fibrils for 7 days and analyzed over time using different experimental approaches.

Results: Our results show that to maintain stable energy production, the astrocytes initially increased their mitochondrial fusion, but eventually the A beta-mediated stress led to abnormal mitochondrial swelling and excessive fission. Moreover, we detected increased levels of phosphorylated DRP-1 in the A beta-exposed astrocytes, which co-localized with lipid droplets. Analysis of ATP levels, when blocking certain stages of the energy pathways, indicated a metabolic shift to peroxisomal-based fatty acid beta-oxidation and glycolysis.

Conclusions: Taken together, our data conclude that A beta pathology profoundly affects human astrocytes and changes their entire energy metabolism, which could result in disturbed brain homeostasis and aggravated disease progression.