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  • 1.
    Schaftenaar, Susanne
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Gender Equality and Conflict: Gendered Determinants of Armed Conflict, Violent Political Protest, and Nonviolent Campaigns2022Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Women’s rights are not only acknowledged as fundamental human rights, but have also been linked to matters of peace and security by scholars and policymakers. This composite dissertation explores how gender equality affects conflict, specifically armed conflicts, violent political protests, and nonviolent campaigns. Nonviolent campaigns and violent political protests are often omitted from conflict literature that explores the gendered determinants of conflict. Scholarship has additionally paid little rigorous attention to how we quantitatively examine the relationship between gender equality and armed conflict. Essay I offers a global study on the effects of gender equality on nonviolent campaigns and armed conflicts. I argue that gender equality affects movements’ mobilization expectations and societal conflict norms, subsequently impacting the choice of armed conflict or nonviolent campaigns. Essay II examines the gendered determinants of nonviolent campaign participation through a survey study on the 2006 Jana Andolan II movement in Nepal. I put forward what I call the gendered participation paradox: while women, compared to men, may suffer from equal or higher levels of grievances, they have fewer resources with which to translate grievances into campaign participation. Essay III introduces a new UCDP dataset on violent political protests. It includes a short exploration of the effects of gender equality on violent protest. Essay IV re-visits comparative country-level quantitative research investigating the relationship between gender equality and armed conflict. It highlights three areas to be improved if we are to advance this field further: construct validity, sampling, and data quality. Essay I finds that increases in gender equality are associated with an increased likelihood of nonviolent conflict compared to armed and no conflict. Essay II finds support for the gendered participation paradox. Essay III describes the data collection and demonstrates the data’s utility through empirical analyses. In an illustration, it finds that lower levels of gender equality are associated with higher levels of violent political protests. Essay IV identifies construct validity, data quality and sampling concerns in research on the effects of gender equality on armed conflict. I show that past findings are less robust than expected. I re-examine the relationship and find, using out-of-sample validation, that gender equality improves the prediction of armed conflict. This dissertation contributes by taking a broad perspective when exploring the effects of gender equality on conflict by incorporating -alongside armed conflict- nonviolent campaigns and violent political protests. 

    List of papers
    1. How (wo)men rebel: exploring the effect of gender equality on nonviolent and armed conflict onset
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>How (wo)men rebel: exploring the effect of gender equality on nonviolent and armed conflict onset
    2017 (English)In: Journal of Peace Research, ISSN 0022-3433, E-ISSN 1460-3578, Vol. 54, no 6, p. 762-776Article in journal (Refereed) Published
    Abstract [en]

    Previous studies find a strong relationship between armed conflict and gender equality, but only compare armed conflict to no armed conflict onset. However, opposition movements use different means to challenge governments, such as nonviolent or armed strategies. This study explores this variation and poses the question: How does the level of gender equality affect the onset of nonviolent campaigns and armed conflicts? It makes two contributions. First, I quantitatively test the impact of gender equality on different forms of conflict onset, and second, I propose a comprehensive gendered mobilization argument based on strategic choice theory. Nonviolent campaigns rely on mass participation, and the nonviolent conflict literature claims that they are open to a wider array of participants, including women, compared to armed conflicts. I argue that gender norms affect movements’ expectations of mobilization (mass or limited) as well as conflict norms (nonviolent or violent) in society, and subsequently, the choice of conflict strategy. I hypothesize that higher levels of gender equality, measured by fertility rate and female-to-male primary school enrolment ratio, increase the likelihood of nonviolent campaign onset, compared to both armed and no campaign onset. This study analyses country-year data from the UCDP and NAVCO datasets between 1961 and 2006 and finds that increases in gender equality are, on average, associated with an increased likelihood of nonviolent conflict onset.
    Keywords
    armed conflict, gender, mobilization, nonviolent campaign
    National Category
    Political Science (excluding Public Administration Studies and Globalisation Studies)
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-337597 (URN)10.1177/0022343317722699 (DOI)000414782900003 ()
    Projects
    Battles Without Bullets
    Funder
    Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation
    Available from: 2018-01-02 Created: 2018-01-02 Last updated: 2022-07-31Bibliographically approved
    2. The gendered participation paradox: Exploring how gender conditions nonviolent campaign participation
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>The gendered participation paradox: Exploring how gender conditions nonviolent campaign participation
    (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Women and men frequently participate in nonviolent campaigns, but gendered patterns in individual-level grievances and organizational resources influencing nonviolent campaign participation remain understudied. I explore these using unique survey data on participation in the 2006 Nepali Jana Andolan II movement. Drawing on political opportunity, grievance, and resource mobilization theories, I test several gender neutrality assumptions and propose a new argument: the gendered participation paradox. Gender inequality affects opportunities for men and women to partake in nonviolent protests by aggravating grievances and leading to lower levels of organizational resources for women. This results in a gendered participation paradox, where women suffer from equal or higher levels of grievances than men, but have less resources with which to translate grievances into nonviolent campaign participation. The findings support the argument. Political discontent has a positive effect on women’s and men’s nonviolent campaign participation, but they do not protest at the same rate despite reporting equal levels of discontent. Organizational resources are important to campaign participation for both men and women. Yet women have less organizational resources than men, supporting the notion that gender preconditions resources for participation. Finally, gender conditions the effect different types of organizational resources have on participation. These findings show the importance of taking a gendered perspective when explaining nonviolent campaign participation.
    Keywords
    nonviolent campaign; gender; women; protest; mobilization; Nepal; survey; civil resistance; social movements
    National Category
    Political Science (excluding Public Administration Studies and Globalisation Studies)
    Research subject
    Peace and Conflict Research
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-480943 (URN)
    Funder
    Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation, MMW 2013.0025Swedish Research Council
    Available from: 2022-07-28 Created: 2022-07-28 Last updated: 2022-07-31
    3. Violent Political Protest: Introducing a New Uppsala Conflict Data Program Data Set on Organized Violence, 1989-2019
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>Violent Political Protest: Introducing a New Uppsala Conflict Data Program Data Set on Organized Violence, 1989-2019
    2022 (English)In: Journal of Conflict Resolution, ISSN 0022-0027, E-ISSN 1552-8766, Vol. 66, no 9, p. 1703-1730Article in journal (Refereed) Published
    Abstract [en]

    This article presents the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) "Violent Political Protest"€ (VPP) data set: a new -standalone- category of organized violence, which complements, and is compatible with, UCDP's three categories of organized violence: one-sided violence, non-state, and state-based conflict. It consists of violent political protests, with at least 25 casualties during a year, in which informally organized civilians challenge states over governmental or territorial issues. We describe the data collection process, and demonstrate the data's use with empirical analyses. Violent political protest is present globally, but most prevalent in the Middle East and Africa, and increasingly common over time. Violent political protest frequently co-occurs with state-based conflicts, but rarely due to conflict escalation. We explore if this is due to shared contexts, and find that gender inequality increases the likelihood of VPP onset, similar to state-based conflicts. Finally, we identify avenues for future research, including using VPP to assist in a more precise and complete analysis of organized violence.
    Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
    Sage Publications, 2022
    Keywords
    violent protest, conflict data, riot, political violence, armed conflict, nonviolent, UCDP, gender
    National Category
    Social Sciences Interdisciplinary
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-480940 (URN)10.1177/00220027221109791 (DOI)000821083100001 ()
    Funder
    Marianne and Marcus Wallenberg Foundation
    Available from: 2022-07-25 Created: 2022-07-25 Last updated: 2023-07-12Bibliographically approved
    4. Revisiting the relationship between gender inequality and intrastate armed conflict
    Open this publication in new window or tab >>Revisiting the relationship between gender inequality and intrastate armed conflict
    (English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    This article re-visits quantitative research on the relationship between gender equality and armed conflict, highlighting concerns about construct validity, sampling, and data quality. Past research has used imperfect measurements for gender equality, and poor construct validity may have led to an inflated sense of support for the relationship. Contrary to common belief, I show, by mapping previous findings, that support for the relationship is mixed. Previous quantitative scholarship has also generally been based on similar -older- samples, which entails missing policy developments and running the risk that findings are time specific. Finally, I identify data quality issues. Some indicators suffer from extensive missing data, and using them in future research is questionable. Missing data have additionally been handled less than ideally, potentially biasing findings. I revisit the relationship with updated samples and a selection of variables, paying attention to data quality. Using out-of-sample validation, I find that all gender equality indicators improve the prediction of conflict incidence, even though models using traditional null-hypothesis testing do not provide significant support. Overall, we should continue our focus on collecting new, better data, and take into account new evaluation techniques, such as out-of-sample evaluation. This approach will open exciting new and unexplored avenues of research.
    Keywords
    Gender inequality; armed conflict; replication; validity; data quality; sampling
    National Category
    Political Science (excluding Public Administration Studies and Globalisation Studies)
    Research subject
    Peace and Conflict Research; Peace and Conflict Research
    Identifiers
    urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-480945 (URN)
    Available from: 2022-07-28 Created: 2022-07-28 Last updated: 2022-07-31
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  • 2.
    Schaftenaar, Susanne
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    How (wo)men rebel: exploring the effect of gender equality on nonviolent and armed conflict onset2017In: Journal of Peace Research, ISSN 0022-3433, E-ISSN 1460-3578, Vol. 54, no 6, p. 762-776Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Previous studies find a strong relationship between armed conflict and gender equality, but only compare armed conflict to no armed conflict onset. However, opposition movements use different means to challenge governments, such as nonviolent or armed strategies. This study explores this variation and poses the question: How does the level of gender equality affect the onset of nonviolent campaigns and armed conflicts? It makes two contributions. First, I quantitatively test the impact of gender equality on different forms of conflict onset, and second, I propose a comprehensive gendered mobilization argument based on strategic choice theory. Nonviolent campaigns rely on mass participation, and the nonviolent conflict literature claims that they are open to a wider array of participants, including women, compared to armed conflicts. I argue that gender norms affect movements’ expectations of mobilization (mass or limited) as well as conflict norms (nonviolent or violent) in society, and subsequently, the choice of conflict strategy. I hypothesize that higher levels of gender equality, measured by fertility rate and female-to-male primary school enrolment ratio, increase the likelihood of nonviolent campaign onset, compared to both armed and no campaign onset. This study analyses country-year data from the UCDP and NAVCO datasets between 1961 and 2006 and finds that increases in gender equality are, on average, associated with an increased likelihood of nonviolent conflict onset.

    Publisher's full text
  • 3.
    Svensson, Isak
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Allansson, Marie
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Schaftenaar, Susanne
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    A New Category of Organized Violence: Presenting the UCDP “Violence in Civil Protest” (ViCiP) Dataset, 1989-20152017Conference paper (Other academic)
  • 4.
    Svensson, Isak
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Schaftenaar, Susanne
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Allansson, Marie
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Violent Political Protest: Introducing a New Uppsala Conflict Data Program Data Set on Organized Violence, 1989-20192022In: Journal of Conflict Resolution, ISSN 0022-0027, E-ISSN 1552-8766, Vol. 66, no 9, p. 1703-1730Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This article presents the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) "Violent Political Protest"€ (VPP) data set: a new -standalone- category of organized violence, which complements, and is compatible with, UCDP's three categories of organized violence: one-sided violence, non-state, and state-based conflict. It consists of violent political protests, with at least 25 casualties during a year, in which informally organized civilians challenge states over governmental or territorial issues. We describe the data collection process, and demonstrate the data's use with empirical analyses. Violent political protest is present globally, but most prevalent in the Middle East and Africa, and increasingly common over time. Violent political protest frequently co-occurs with state-based conflicts, but rarely due to conflict escalation. We explore if this is due to shared contexts, and find that gender inequality increases the likelihood of VPP onset, similar to state-based conflicts. Finally, we identify avenues for future research, including using VPP to assist in a more precise and complete analysis of organized violence.

    Download full text (pdf)
    fulltext
    Publisher's full text
  • 5.
    Tønnesson, Stein
    et al.
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Melander, Erik
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Bjarnegård, Elin
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Government.
    Svensson, Isak
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    Schaftenaar, Susanne
    Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research.
    The fragile peace in East and South East Asia2013In: SIPRI yearbook: Armaments, disarmament and international security. 2013, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 28-40Chapter in book (Other academic)
    Download full text (pdf)
    fulltext
1 - 5 of 5
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  • ieee
  • modern-language-association
  • vancouver
  • Other style
More styles
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  • en-GB
  • en-US
  • fi-FI
  • nn-NO
  • nn-NB
  • sv-SE
  • Other locale
More languages
Output format
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  • text
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